《青少年性格优势、同伴侵害、幸福感良好性格与积极社会经历对青少年心理健康的影响》（第二章）翻译项目报告.pdf

'＇－？‘Ｉ－，．，．＿．１＇＊＇Ｖ？Ｖ’！，ｃＶｆｒ，■；■Ｖ；■、？．．’ｒ■－、？－．＇：Ｗ体錢旅六賓？译专化学位硕女论文＇《４少年作＃化势、巧嘗、专语Ａ？命》（￥＊章；舶种巧《旅告＇．、，’－＇．今．＇Ｖ＇＼＇＼’、、叶燕藏推，教巧：朱海蕉１１教巧专化名巧：１！译硕女巧巧巧巧：巧巧《译巧文《巧巧。：２０１６年４月论义書辩村巧：２０１６年５月论义编々ｔ２０１始４２ ＳｉｃｈｕａｎＩｎｔｅｒｎａｔｉｏｎａｌＳｔｕｄｉｅｓＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ＊Ａａｎ＊Ｒｅｐｏｉｔｏｎ＜：ｈｅＴｒｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆ际《从化£／ＶｉｃｍｉｚａｔｉｏｎａｎｄＷｅｌｌ－Ｂｅｉｎ：ＵｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎＡｓｓｏｃｉａｏｎｓｔｉｔｉｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ＾ｇｇＰｏｓｉｔｉｖｅＴｍｉ化ＳｏｃｉａｌＥｘｅｒｉｅｎｃｅｓａｎｄＰｏｓｉｔｉｖｅＰｓｃｈｏｌｏｉｃａｌ，ｐ，ｙｇ〇Ｍ化ｏ／ｗｅｓＣｈａｔ：ｅｒ２（ｐ）ｂｙＹｅＹａｎｙａｎＡ化ｅｓｉｓｓｕｂｍｉｔｔｅｄｔｏ化ｅＧｒａｄｕａｔｅＳｃｈｏｏｌｉｎａｒｔｉａｌｆｕｌｆｉｌｌｍｅｎｔｏｆ化６ｒｅｕｉｒｅｍｅｎｔｓ化ｒｔｈｅｄｅｒｅｅｏｆｐＭｑｇａｓｔｅｒｏｆＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｎａｎｄＩｎｔｅｒｒｅｔｉｎｇｐｇｕｎｄｅｒｔｈｅｓｕｅｒｖｉｓｉｏｎｏｆｐ乂ｓｓｏｃｉａｔｅＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＺｈｕＨａｉａｎｙＣｈｏｎｉｎＰ，Ｒ．Ｃｈｉｎａｇｑｇ，Ｊｕｎｅ２０１６ 《良好性格与积极社会经历对青少年心理健康的影响》（第二章）翻译报告摘要本文是一篇翻译项目报告。翻译项目原文选自博士论文《青少年性格优势、同伴侵害、幸福感：良好性格与积极社会经历对青少年心理健康的影响》第二章，原文主要论述了青少年的良好性格如何帮助其免受同伴侵害，并获得积极心理体验。该文本的英汉翻译可以为中国家长和老师提供相关经验，帮助孩子健康发展。同时，该项目通过探索社科类文本翻译方法，也为相关文本翻译提供指导和借鉴。该报告主要分为四个章节：第一章为翻译项目简介，具体介绍项目背景、需求、目标和意义；第二章为原作背景介绍，包括作者简介、主要内容和原作特点分析等；第三章为翻译项目指导理论，翻译难点以及解决难点的有效翻译方法。本项目将以目的论为指导，并运用转译、增译、分译、省译和音译等翻译技巧来解决相关难点问题；最后一章总结了本次翻译所获得的经验教训、启发，并指出亟待解决的问题。关键词：翻译项目报告;目的论;社科文本;翻译方法ii AReportontheTranslationofYouthCharacterStrengths,PeerVictimization,andWell-Being:UnderstandingAssociationsbetweenPositiveTraits,SocialExperiences,andPositivePsychologicalOutcomes(Chapter2)AbstractThisisatranslationprojectreportonthetranslationofthesecondchapterofYouthCharacterStrengths,PeerVictimization,andWell-Being:UnderstandingAssociationsbetweenPositiveTraits,SocialExperiences,andPositivePsychologicalOutcomes.Thistranslationprojectaimstoexploretheapproachestoandgeneralizationsofthetranslationofsocialandscientifictexts.Thesourcetextexploreshowthecharacterstrengthofateenagermayhelphimorherfrompeervictimization,andgainpositivepsychologicalexperiences.TohaveittranslatedintoChinesecanbenefitparentsandteacherswhoarefrequentlyconfrontedwithkidswhoarevictimizedormentallyunhappy.Thisreportconsistsoffourchapters.Thefirstchapterisabriefintroductiontothistranslationproject,includingitsbackground,needs,objectiveandsignificance.Chapter2briefsthebiographyoftheauthorandthestylisticfeaturesoftheSLtext.Thethirdchapteraddresseswhatguidingtranslationtheoryisusedandwhatproblemstheauthorhasencounteredandhowtheyaresolved.Thetranslatoradoptedtheskopostheoryastheguidingtheoryandsometranslationtechniqueslikeconversion,division,amplification,omission,andtransliterationtosolvetheproblems;andthefourthchapterisabriefsummaryoftheproject,pointingoutwhattheauthorhaslearntthroughthisprojectandwhataretheproblemsdesiringfurtherinvestigation.Keywords:translationprojectreport;skopostheory;socialandscientifictexts;translationtechniquesiii ＡｃｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｅｍｅｎｔｓｇＴｈａｎｋｓｇｏ化ｔｈｅＳｉｃｈｕａｎＩｎｔｅｒｎａｔｉｏｎａｌＳｔｕｄｉｅｓＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙｆｏｒａｃｃｅｔｉｎｍｐｇｙｒｏｏｓａｌａｎｄｔｈｅｒｏｅｃｔｒｅｏｒｔｉｎａｃｏｕｒａｅｏｕｓｗａ．ｐｐｐｊｐｇｙ巧ｒｓｔａｎｄ化ｒｅｍｏｓｔＩｗｏ山ｄｌｉｋｅ化ｓｈｏｗｍｄｅｅｅｓｔｒａｔｉｔｕｄｅ化ｍａｃａｄｅｍｉｃ，ｙｐｇｙｓｕｅｒｖｉｓｏｒＺｈｕＨａｉａｎａｒｅｓｅｃｔａｂｌｅｒｅｏｎｓｉｂｌｅａｎｄｒｅｓｏｕｒｃｅ扣１ｒｏ色ｓｓｏｒｉｎｏｕｒ，，邓ｐ，ｙｐｐｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ，ｗｈｏｈａｓｐ的ｖｉｄｅｄｍｅｗｉ化ｖａｌｕａｂｌｅｇｕｉｄａｎｃｅｉｎｅｖｅｒｙｓｔａｇｅｏｆｍｙａｅｒｐｐｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ．Ｗｉｔｈｏｕｔｈｅｒｅｎｌｉｇｈｔｅｎｉｎｇｉｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｉｍｐｒｅｓｓｉｖｅｐａｔｉｅｎｃｅ，Ｉｃｏｕｌｄｎｏｔｈａｖｅｃｏｍｐｌｅｔｅｄｍｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｔｈｅｓｉｓ．Ｈｅｒｋｅｅｎａｎｄｖｉｇｏｎｍｓａｃａｄｅｍｉｃｏｂｓｅｒｖａｔｉｏｎｅｎｌｉｈｔｅｎｓｍｅｎｏｔｏｎｌｉｎｔｈｉｓ化ｅｓｉｓｂｕｔａｌｓｏｍｆｉｉｔｕｒｅｓ扣ｄ．Ｔｈａｎｋｓ化ｇｙ，ｙｙａｌｌｈｅｒｋｉｎｄｎｅ巧ａｎｄｈｅｌｐ，Ｉｈａｖｅｂｅｎｅｆｉｔｅｄａｌｏｔａｎｄｉｍｐｒｏｖｅｄｍｙ化化ｇｒｅａｔｌｙ．Ｉａｍａｌｓｏｖｅｒｙｇｒａｔｅｆｕｌ化ｍｙｃｌａｓｓｍａｔｅｓ，ｗｈｏ化ｃａｒｅｆｕｌａｎｄｍｉｃｒｏｓｃｏｐｉｃ化ｍｔｉｎｙｏｆｔｈｅｍａｎｕｓｃｒｉｐｔｒｅｓｕｌｔｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｅｌｉｍｉｎａｔｉｏｎｏｆｍａｎｙｉｎｃｏｎｓｋｔｅｎｃｉｅｓ．Ｌａｓｔｂｕｔｎｏｔｔｈｅｌｅａｓｔ，ｂｉｇｔｈａｎｋｓｇｏｔｏｍｙｆａｍｉｌｙｗｈｏｈａｖｅａｌｗａｙｓｓｕｐｐｏｒｔｅｄｍｅｗｉｔｈｌｏｖｅａｎｄｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒａｔｉｏｎｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｏｕｔｔｈｅｃｏｍｐｏｓｉｎｇｏｆｍｙｔｈｅｓｉｓ．Ｖ CONTENTS摘要.................................................................................................................................iAbstract..........................................................................................................................iiContents........................................................................................................................ivChapterOneIntroduction............................................................................................11.1ProjectBackground...........................................................................................11.2ProjectObjectiveandSignificance...................................................................1ChapterTwoAbouttheSLText..................................................................................32.1AbouttheSLText..............................................................................................32.2LinguisticFeaturesoftheSLText....................................................................4ChapterThreeGuidingTranslationTheoryandTranslationTechniquesUsedtoAddresstheProblems.....................................................................................................53.1.TheGuidingTheoryAdopted...........................................................................53.2TranslationTechniquesUsedtoSolvetheProblems........................................63.2.1.Conversion.............................................................................................63.2.2Amplification...........................................................................................83.2.3Division...................................................................................................93.2.4.Omission..............................................................................................123.2.5Transliteration.......................................................................................13ChapterfourConclusion..............................................................................................144.1LessonsGained...............................................................................................144.2ProblemstobeSolved.....................................................................................14References....................................................................................................................15AppendixISourceText................................................................................................16AppendixII中文译文................................................................................................36iv 1ChapterOneIntroduction1.1ProjectBackgroundAccordingtoamediareport,inrecentyears,thereareabout100,000youthcriminalsinChinaeachyearinaverage,andthenumberisstillincreasingbytherateof13%.Statisticsshowsthat,mostofthecriminalsareteenagerswithunhealthymentalstate,whichiscloselyrelatedtotheircharacterandsocialexperiences.Infact,badmentalstatenotonlycausescriminalbehaviors,butalsohasnegativeimpactonstudents’studyanddailylife.Thus,itisurgentandnecessarytostudyandanalyzethefactorscontributingtoagoodmentalhealth,andhowcanthementalhealthofateenagerbebettered.YouthCharacterStrengths,PeerVictimization,andWell-Being:UnderstandingAssociationsbetweenPositiveTraits,SocialExperiences,andPositivePsychologicalOutcomesisawelcomeanswertothatneed.Itinvestigateshowcharacterstrengthsandsocialexperiencesmayhelpateenagerwithstandunfavorablepeoplecommunicationandinteraction.Theaudienceofthispapercanbescholarsorexperts,likepostgraduatestudents,doctoralstudentsandprofessorswhostudyinpsychologyandsocialissues,andalsoeducatorsandparentswhoconcernaboutthementalhealthoftheirstudentsorchildren.ThispaperhasnotbeentranslatedintoChinese.GiventhatliteratureonthistopicishardtocomebyinChina,itwouldbeaworthyefforttohaveittranslatedintoChinese.ThetranslatorfindthepaperengagingandchallengingenoughtosatisfytherequirementsofaMTItranslationprojectandbelievessheiscapableofhandlingsuchatask,asshehasreadsomeintroductorybooksonyouthpsychology.1.2ProjectObjectiveandSignificanceTheprojectobjectiveistoexplorethewaystotranslatesocialsciencetextandtodrawexperiencesinsolvingsomespecifictranslationproblems.1 Thesignificanceofthistranslationprojectmainlyliesintwoaspects:oneisthatthisprojectoffersthetranslatoranopportunitytotestherowntranslationability;theotheristhatthisprojectcanprovideChinesescholars,psychologistsandeducatorsanewperspectiveonunderstandingoftheimpactofenvironmentandpositivetraitsonthebehavioroftheyouth.2 ChapterTwoAbouttheSLText2.1AbouttheSLTextThetextYouthCharacterStrengths,PeerVictimization,andWell-Being:UnderstandingAssociationsbetweenPositiveTraits,SocialExperiences,andPositivePsychologicalOutcomesisadoctoraldissertationofsocialscience，whichhasabout34,886wordsintotal.TheauthorofthepaperisMichaelJ.Frank,adoctorofCollegeofEducationinUniversityofSouthFlorida,guidedbyseniorprofessorsincludingShannonSuldo,Ph.D.,JohnFerron,Ph.D.,SarahKiefer,Ph.D.,TiinaOjanen,Ph.D.Itwaspublishedin2014byProQuestLLC.ProQuestLLCisanAnnArbor,Michigan-basedglobalinformation-contentandtechnologycompanyfoundedin1938asUniversityMicrofilms,providingsolutions,applications,andproductsforlibraries.Itsresourcesandtoolssupportpublishinganddissemination，researchandlearning,andthemanagementanddiscoveryoflibrarycollections.ProQuestbeganpublishingdoctoraldissertationsasamicrofilmpublisherin1939,withmorethan3millionsearchabledissertationsandthesespublished,andisdesignatedasandigitalarchivefortheUnitedStatesLibraryofCongress.Thecompany"sscholarlycontentnotonlyincludesdissertationsandtheses,e-books,scholarlyjournals,butalsoprimarysourcematerial,historicalandcurrentnewspapers,datasources,andsoon.AllofthemareavailablethroughavarietyofWeb-basedinterfaces.Nowadays,asanelectronicpublisher,thecompanyprovidestoolsfordiscoveryandcitationmanagementandplatformsthatlibraryuserscandiscover,useandshareabundantresearch.Besides,ProQuestispartofCambridgeInformationGroup.Thesourcetextshedslightonempiricalrelationshipsbetweenpeervictimization,positiveindicatorsofwell-being(positivestates),andcharacterstrengths(positivetraits)thatmaymoderatelinksbetweenpeervictimizationandpositivepsychologicaloutcomes.Itspecificallyexaminesthefollowing:a.theextentthatthecharacterstrengths(Responsibility,Self-Regulation,SocialCompetence,and3 Empathy)significantlyassociatewithstudents’positivepsychologicaloutcomes(Gratitude,LifeSatisfaction,andHope);b.theextentthatpeervictimizationassociatewithstudents’positivepsychologicaloutcomes(Gratitude,LifeSatisfaction,andHope);c.thecharacterstrengths(Responsibility,Self-Regulation,SocialCompetence,andEmpathy)thatserveasresiliencefactorsbyprotectingstudentswhoexperiencegreaterpeervictimizationfromdiminishedpositivepsychologicaloutcomes(Gratitude,LifeSatisfaction,andHope).Basedontheimprovedmeasurementandunderstandingofcharacterstrengthsandwell-beinginpreviousresearch,thispaperthoroughlydiscussestheinteractionofthesefactorswithsocialriskfactors,whichoffersexcellentguidetoyouthpsychologystudy,andfurthercontributestosolvesocialissuescausedbythosementalphenomenon.2.2LinguisticFeaturesoftheSLTextSincethetextisselectedfromadoctoralthesis,ithasthelinguisticcharacteristicsofanacademicpaper.Firstly,itsregisterisformalwhichismanifestedbythewordsandsentencesused.Forinstance,writtenwordslikeabstractnounsandotherprofessionalvocabularyareusedthroughoutthepaper.Longsentenceswithseveralsubordinateclausesareemployedtoexpressexactandcomplexideas..Secondly,therearegreatnumberoftermsanddefinitionswhicharehardtounderstand.Therearealsonumerouspersonalnames,manyofwhichareprettylonganduncommon.Thirdly,thetextusesnotmanyfiguresofspeech,asthisisaninformativetext.Occasionally,thereisauseofsimileormetaphorthough.4 ChapterThreeGuidingTranslationTheoryandTranslationTechniquesUsedtoAddresstheProblems3.1TheGuidingTheoryAdoptedSkoposistheGreekwordfor‘aim’or‘purpose’andwasintroducedintotranslationtheoryinthe1970sbyHansJ.Vermeerasatechnicaltermforthepurposeofatranslationandoftheactionoftranslation(Munday,2008,p.79).Skopostheoryfocusesaboveallonthepurposeofthetranslation,whichdeterminesthetranslationapproachesandstrategiesthataretobeemployedinordertoproduceafunctionallyadequateresult.Thisresultisthetargettext,whichVermeercallsthetranslatum(ibid.).Therefore,inSkopostheory,knowingwhyasourcetextistobetranslatedandthefunctionofthetargettextwillbecrucialforthetranslator.Multiplepurposesareallowedinatranslationalaction,whichcanbeclassifiedintothreecategories:a.thebasicpurposeoftranslator(e.g.,tomakeforaliving);b.communicativepurposeoftargettext(e.g.,toenlightenreaders);c.toachievesomeeffectsbyusingsomespecialtranslationmeans(e.g.,adoptingliteraltranslationtoconveythespecialpartsofsomegrammaticalstructure)(ibid.80).Whilegenerallyspeaking,thesecondpurposeismorecommon,namelythecommunicativepurpose,whichmeansthecommunicativefunctiongeneratedbythetargettextamongtargetreadersinthetargetsocio-culturalcontext.Inaddition,coherenceruleandfidelityrulearealsoimportantaccordingtoskopostheory(Gentzler,2004,p.68).Theformermeansthatthetargettextmustachieveintra-textualcoherence,i.e.,readabilityandacceptabilityoftargettext),whichcanmakeitmeaningfulincommunicativecontextandbeunderstoodandusedbytargetreaders.Thefidelityrule,putforwardbyNord(1997,p.35),referstointer-textualcoherencebetweentheoriginalandreceptortexts.However,theextentandformofwhichdependonthepurposeoftranslatumandunderstandingofthetranslator.AccordingtoNord(2006,p.73),foronething,thetranslatorshouldberesponsiblefortheoriginaltext,whichrequiresthetranslatortogivethetranslating5 grounds(i.e.,whytranslateinthisway);Foranother,thetranslatorshouldalsoberesponsiblefororiginalauthor,whichmeansrespectingtheoriginalauthorbycoordinatingthetargetintentionandauthor’soriginalintention.Theabovethreerulescomprisethebasicprinciplesofskopostheory,andwhatisworthmentioningisthatthecoherenceruleandfidelityrulemustbesubordinatedtotheprimeprinciple—skoposrule.InOnTranslationofSocialScienceTextsintheLightofSkoposTheory(李凡,2014,p.32),LiFanstatedthatsocialsciencetext,asaaninformativetext,demandsthedomesticationstrategyintranslating.HuangZhongwen(2013,p.38)claimsthatsocialsciencetexttranslationshouldnotsticktoomuchtotheSLsentencestructureorexpression,instead,accuracyofinformationandsmoothTLexpressionshouldbeadopted.AccordingtoVermeer,theskopostheoryfocusesaboveallonthepurposeofthetranslation,whichdeterminesthetranslationmethodsandstrategiestobeemployedinordertoproduceafunctionallyadequateresult(Munday,2008,p.80).AstheSLtextbelongstothesocialsciencecategory,itspurposeistoconveyinformationliketheresearchprocessandfindingsonsocialphenomenonandproblems.Therefore,skopostheoryisselectedastheguidingtheoryofthetranslationproject.Thetargettextneedstocomplywiththethreerulessetbytheskopostheory.3.2TranslationTechniquesUsedtoSolvetheProblemsWhendoingthisproject,thetranslatorwaschallengedwithmanytranslationproblems.Guidedbytheoryandusingskillslearntinthepast,thetranslatorhadmostofthemsolved.Themajordifficultiesencounteredinthistranslationprojectareterminology,abstractwords,attributivestructuresandsomelongdifficultsentences.Thetranslatorusedthetranslationtechniqueoftransliteration,conversion,division,amplification,omissiontoaddressthoseproblems,anditturnsouttobequiteeffective.3.2.1.ConversionConversionasatranslationtechniquegenerallyreferstoconvertingthepartof6 speechofthewordsoftheSLtextintoanotherpartofspeechintheTLtext.ButitalsomeanstoconverttheabstractnessoftheSLwordsintoconcretenessintheTLtext,orviceversa(连淑能,2010,p.78).3.2.1.1ConversionofAbstractnesstoConcretenessIntheSLtext,thereareabstracttermswhichcannotbeliterallytranslatedintoChinese.Forinstance,“characterstrength”iftranslateddirectlyintoChinese,wouldbe“性格力量”or“性格优势”.ButbothoftheChineseversionscanbemisleading,forthedefinitionof“characterstrength”intheSLreads:characterstrengthinthisstudyreferstopositivepersonalitytraitsthataresometimesreferredtoassocial-emotionalassetsintheliterature.Inthecurrentstudy,thistermrefersspecificallytothosetraitsthatarerelevanttoschoolfunctioningandaremeasuredbytheSocialEmotionalAssetsandResilienceScales.Aspredictorvariables,thesecharacterstrengthsareconsideredtobepsychologicaltraits(Frank,2014,p.7).Fromthedefinition,wecanseethatitspecificallyreferstothe“positivepersonalitytraits”,so“性格力量”,“性格优势”isvagueandtooabstract.Therefore,thetranslatorusedthetechniqueofconversion,andtranslateditas“良好性格”.Anothertoughexpressionis“positivepsychologicaloutcomes”.“Outcomes”means“结果”literally.Simpleasitis,itsliteraltranslation“积极心理结果”isanawkwardcollocationinChinese,anditsoundsveryconcrete.ThedefinitionintheSLtextsaysthat“Inthecurrentstudy,positivepsychologicaloutcomesrefertomentalhealthasdefinedbypositiveindicators,namelylifesatisfaction,gratitude,andhope.Asoutcomes,thesevariablesareconsideredtobepsychologicalstatesakintopositivewell-being”(ibid.6).Youcanseethatthough“outcome”isaconcreteword,itisusedtorefertoanabstractconcepthere.Tofacilitatetheunderstandingoftheterm,thetranslatortranslateditinto“积极心理状态”.3.2.1.2ConversioninPartofSpeechInEnglish,thefrequentuseofpronounsissometimesheadachesforthetranslator,astheChineselanguagedoesnothavesomanyequivalentexpressions.Tosolvetheproblem,thetranslatorconvertedthosepronounstonouns.Forexample:7 Finally,althoughmanyofthesestrengthshavebeenevaluatedasincreasingpositiveoutcomes,informationislimitedregardingtheextenttowhichtheymayprotectagainstnegativeoutcomes(ibid.35).Inthissentence,“they”isnotaspecificreference.Iftranslatedliterally,itcouldbeconfusingtoitsChinesereaders.Sothetranslatorrepeatedthenoun“strength”,namely“优势”,intoChinese.AndtheChineseversionreads:最后，尽管其中许多研究证明性格优势能加强个体的积极心理体验，但这些优势能在多大程度上抵制负面心理体验仍然信息不足。Thereisonemoreexample.TheEnglishsentencegoes:Furthermore,perceivedsocialsupport(positivesocialcontext)canprotectstudentswhoarevictimized(negativesocialcontext)fromadverseexperiencessuchasdepression(ibid.18).Theword“perceived”isapastparticiplefunctioningasanattribute.Andinthiscase,itisnothardtofindthat“socialsupport”is“perceived”by“students”,thatistosay,“students”aretheagentnoun,and“socialsupport”istheactionobject.Butthroughanalyzingthewholesentence,itcanbefoundthatthesubjectinSLis“socialsupport”,whichmakesitdifficulttorestatethewholesentenceintargetlanguage.AccordingtothecharacteristicsofChinese,itwouldbebettertoconvertthepastparticipletoanounbyusingspecialChinesestructureslike“对…的…”toconveythemeaningmoreidiomatically.Andthetranslationthengoes:此外，对社会帮助（积极社会环境）的感知能保护（消极社会环境）学生免受不良体验如抑郁的侵害。TheChineseversionsoundsmoreidiomaticandsmooth.3.2.2AmplificationAmplificationmeanssupplyingnecessarywordsinourtranslationonthebasisofaccuratecomprehensionoftheoriginal(黄钟文,2013,p.40).ConsideringthedifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglish,categorywordsareoftenaddedtoconvey8 theabstractnessofanabstractnoun(连淑能,2010,p.72).Forexample,somepsychologicalmeasuringorassessmentmethodsappearinginthisselectedtext,like“TheValuesinAction(VIA)”,“theSocialEmotionalAssetsandResilienceScales(SEARS)and“theRevisedClassPlay”,willareabstractinsense.Whentranslatingthesenames,amplificationmustbeusedtoimprovereadability.Thetranslatorsuppliedacategorywordrespectively,sotranslatedversionsread“行动价值研究项目”,“社会情感有利条件和弹性等级量表”and“改良版班级戏剧量表”,whichbecomescomprehensiblefortheChinesereaders.Hereisanotherexample.IntheSLtext,thereisaphrase“aninterventioncalledStrengthsGym”(Frank,2014,p.34).Ifthisphraseistranslatedliterallyinto“优势健身房干预”,itwouldbeincomprehensiblefortheChinesereaders.Infact,“StrengthsGym”mentionedherereferstoakindofresearchorsomethinglikethat.Therefore,theabstractword“intervention”shouldbedealtbyaddingsomecategorywords,like“研究”,andthewholeexpressioncanbetranslatedinto“优势健身房干预研究”.Similarly,theword“project”insentence“TheValuesinAction(VIA)projectidentified24ubiquitouslyvaluedtraitsthatareconsideredbeneficialinnumerouscultures”shouldbetranslatedinto“研究项目”.Hereisonemoreexample:“WhiletheVIAstrengthsinventoryallowsforamorecomprehensiveprofileofstrengths,theSEARSasdesignedtomatchskillsthatcanbeeffectivelytaughtthroughschool-basedsocialemotionalcurriculum”(ibid.24).“Inventory”inthissentenceisnoteasytounderstand.“Inventory”literallymeans“目录”or“清单”,butobviously,itiscrappytochoosethismeaninginthissentence.Sothetranslatedthewordinto“分类方法”,whichhelpsbetterconveytheintendedmeaningoftheEnglishsentence.Similarly,thetranslatortranslated“correlates”into“相关性”byaddingcategoryword“性”,“hope”“希望值”,“lifesatisfactory”“生活满意度”,andsoon.Whatisworthmentioningissomewordslike“correlates”havemultipleappearanceintheoriginaltext,anditcanmeandifferentlywhenitappearsatdifferentplaces.3.2.3DivisionDivision,asatranslationtechnique,referstocuttingalongandcomplexEnglish9 sentenceintoseveralsensegroupsandtranslatingeachgroupintoanindependentChinesesentence,andthenreorganizingthosesentencesintoalogicallyacceptableChinesesentence(连淑能,2010,p.81).Asweallknow,Englishsentencepatternsarecharacterizedbyhypostasis.Onthecontrary,Chinesefavorparatacticstructures(Ma&Miao,2009,p.76).Basedonthatfact,thelongandcomplexEnglishsentenceshavetobedividedintoseveralshortChinesesentencestoconformtoChineseexpression.Inthistranslationproject,divisionsarewidelyused.Forinstance,thefollowingEnglishsentenceisquitelongandcomplex,ifitistranslatedfollowingtheoriginalstructure,itwouldbeveryhardfortheChinesereaderstocomprehend.Giventheapparentmalleabilityofintrapersonalstrengthsandtheirconnectiontomentalhealth,includingpositiveindicatorsofwell-being,furtherexplorationofhowcharacterstrengthsrelatetopositivepsychologicaloutcomesisimportant(Frank,2014,p.25).Inthissentence,thepart---“ofintrapersonalstrengthsandtheirconnectiontomentalhealth,includingpositiveindicatorsofwell-being”isanattributiveclause.Anaturaltranslationofthesentencedemandstheclausebetranslatedintoanindependentclause,andatthesametime,thewordordershouldbereadjustedappropriately.Thus,wearrivedatthefollowingChinesesentence:鉴于人际交往能力的优势性格及与心理健康的关联以及幸福的积极指标，还存在很大的延展性，所以，进一步研究优势性格与积极心理表现的关联十分必要。Thereisanotherexamplewherethetranslatorfindsdivisionaneffectivetechniquetoaddresstheproblemoftranslatinglongandcomplexsentences.Thismodelappearsparticularlyrelevanttotheschoolsettingasstudentswhoexperiencecompletementalhealthtendtoexperiencegreateracademicsuccessthanstudentswhoaresimplyfreefromsymptomsofpsychologicalproblems(ibid.12).Thissentencecanbedividedintotwoparts:mainclauseandsubordinateclause.10 Andtopromotethecoherenceofthetwoclauses,properamplificationisadoptedrighthere.Thus,thewholesentenceistranslatedinto:该模型尤其适用于分析和研究学生的表现。通过这个模型，研究人员发现，完全心理健康的学生往往比那些没有心理问题的学生在学术上更为成功。Similarly,inthefollowingexample,thetranslatorusedthedivisiontechnique:ThevaluesinAction(VIA)projectidentified24ubiquitouslyvaluedtraitsthatareconsideredbeneficialinnumerouscultures(ibid.13).Thissentenceconsistsofamainclauseandanattributiveclause.Astheattributeistoolong,totranslateitasasinglepartisabetteridea,thus,thewholesentenceisdividedintotwopartsintheChineseversion:行动价值计划（VIA）认定了24种普遍存在的重要特质，其在许多文化中被认为是有益的。Besides,toarriveatamorecoherentandnaturalChinesesentence,sometimesthetranslatorneedscarryoutinner-sententialdivisionfirstandtheninter-sententialswitching.Atypicalexampleisasfollows:Sincethedebutofthismovementoveradecadeago,muchresearchhasbeendonewithadults,withlessemphasisonchildren;however,researchers(e.g.,Huebner,1991;McCullough,Emmons,&Tsang,2002;Suldo&Shaffer,2008)havealsobeganexploringthesethreepillarsastheypertaintochildren.Inthisliteraturereview,youthresearchwillbeusedwhenavailable;otherwise,researchwithadultswillbediscussed(ibid.11).Apparently，thedifficultpointoftranslatingthistextliesnotintheunderstatingofeachclauses,butthelogicofinter-sentences.Throughathoroughanalysis,theinternallogicrelationscanbefound:thewholetextcanberegardedastwoparts---reasonsandconclusions,whichrespectivelycontainstwolayersofmeaning.Inotherwords,thespecificreasonsandconclusionsinSTareapartandnottightenough,whichmaycauseobstaclestoreaders.Therefore,itisessentialtomakesome11 adjustmentbydividingitintoseveralpartsfirst,andthenreorganizethewordorder.Throughanalysis,eachconclusionshouldbeputfollowingitscorrespondingreason,sothewholesentencecanbetranslatedas:自十多年前积极心理学发轫以来，多以成人为研究对象，较少涉及未成年人。因此，本文献综述主要以成人积极心理学研究文献为主。不过，最近也兴起了一些针对未成年人的积极心理学研究（如希布纳，1991；麦卡洛，埃蒙斯，&曾，2002；索尔多&谢弗，2008），所以，本文献综述也会涉及一些已有的未成年人积极心理学文献。TheChinesesentenceoftenstartswithareasonandendsinaconclusion,whilethatorderisreversedmostofthetimeinanEnglishsentence.Underthiscircumstance,thesentenceshouldalsobedividedandthenreorganized.Forinstance,Thelatterthreeexperiencesareparticularlysalientwhenmeasuringanindividual’shappinessbecausetheycapturepositiveemotionsreflectingone’spast,present,andfuture(ibid.11).Thislongsentenceincludesamainclause,twosubordinateclausesrespectivelyledby‘when’and‘because’.Accordingtotheaboveanalysis,theseclausesshouldbeseparatedfirst,andthereasonpartshouldbeputahead,socomprehensivelyitcanbehandledlikethis:由于后三种体验反映了一个人过去，现在，将来的种种生活体验，因此在衡量一个人的幸福感时，显得尤为重要。3.2.4.OmissionOmissionreferstoomitsomeunnecessarySLwordsinthetargetlanguage(连淑能,2010,p.81).Ofcourse,“unnecessary”meansthatitsomissionwillnotbringdamagetothecompletenessofinformation.Hereisanexample:Positiveexperiencehasbeenmostcommonlyoperationalizedasincludingtheindicatorsofsubjectivewell-being:highlifesatisfaction,highpositiveaffect,andlownegativeaffect(Frank,2014,p.12).12 Theword“operationalized”here,ineffect,onlyservesasasymbolicverb,astheword“including”isthekeyword.Thus,itisunnecessarytotranslate“operationalized”,andtohaveitomittedcansimplifytheChineseexpressing,makingthetranslationmoreclearandreadable.SotheChineseversionreads:积极体验主要的研究指标包括：生活满意度高、积极情绪高、负面情绪低。3.2.5TransliterationInthisdoctoralthesis,numerouspersonalnamesappearedthroughoutthewholetext.Andalargeamountofthemarerarelyseen,beforeandtherearenocorrespondingauthoritativetranslations.Transliterationmeansthattotranslatebyusingthehomophonicwordsintargetlanguage,whichisoftenusedintranslatingthepropernounslikepersonalnames,placenames,andsoon.However,transliterationdoesrequiretheChinesewordsusedtorepresentthepronunciationoftheEnglishnamescontainnoobviousandconcretemeanings.Forexample,“Martin”canbeeasilytranslatedas“马丁”and“Merrel”as“梅里尔”,buttranslationssuchas“马叮”，“妈你儿”shouldbeavoided.SometimesthenameistoolongtobereadouteasilyforChinesereaders,like“MihalyCsiksentmihalyi”,whichhasnoready-madetranslation,andafulltransliterationcouldscaretheChinesereaderswithitstonguetwistingeffect.Underthiscircumstance,thenamecanbeshortenedto“奇克森”whichismoreconvenienttoread,yetitdoesn’taffectthemeaningofthewholetextatall.Inconclusion，thetranslatorusedconversion,amplificationtechniquestotranslatetermsinthepaper;anddivisionisusedtohandlelongandcomplexsentences,andomissionforcertainwords,transliterationforunknownnames.Thesetechniquesareallusedtoachievecoherence,fidelityandloyaltyasstipulatedbytheskopostheory.13 ChapterFourConclusion4.1LessonsGainedSocialandscientifictextsaremainlyinformative,whichrequiresmorecontentaccuracyandlessformalequivalence.Therearemanyprofessionaltermsandexpressions,whichrequirecarefulhandling.Guidedbytheskopostheory,thetranslatorusedconversion,division,amplification,omission,andtransliterationtoaddressthedifficulties.Havingcompletedtheproject,thetranslatorrealizesthatadequatetheoreticalandprofessionpreparationbeforestartingthetranslationisverynecessary.Goodtheorycanorientthetranslatortotherightchoiceofwordsandexpressionsaswellastranslationtechniques.Atthesametime,agoodtranslatormusthavegoodcommandofhernativelanguage.OnlyagoodChinesespeakercanrenderthetranslationnaturallyandaccurately.Lastly,atranslatorshouldalsobewellread.Themoreknowledgeablethetranslator,theeasierthetranslationtaskwillbecome.4.2ProblemstobeSolvedThroughseveralmonths’effort,theprojectiscompletedontime.Thoughitissuccessfultosomeextent,therearestillsomeproblemsthatbeyondthetranslator’scurrentcapacity.Forexample,howtomakethetranslationmoreaccurateandconcise,howtomakeflexibleuseoftheabovetranslatingtechniquesinsimilartexts,andhowtoachievethegreatercoherenceandfidelityareworthoffurtherdeliberation.14 ReferencesFrank,M.J.(2014).Youthcharacterstrengths,peervictimization,andwell-being:Understandingassociationsbetweenpositivetraits,socialexperiences,andpositivepsychologicaloutcomes.AnnArbor:ProQuestLLC.Gentzeler,E.C.(2004).Contemporarytranslationtheories.London&NewYork:Routledge.Ma,H.J.&Miao,J.(2009).Selectedreadingsofcontemporarywesterntranslation.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress.Munday,J.(2008).Introductiontranslationstudies:Theoriesandapplications.London&NewYork:Routledge.Newmark,P.(2001).Atextbookoftranslation).Shanghai:ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress.Nord,C.(2006).Textanalysisintranslation.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress.Nord,C.(1997).Translatingasapurposefulactivity:Functionalistapproachesexplained.Manchester:St.Jerome.Wang,B.R.(2011).Translatingpublicitytextsinthelightofskopostheory:Problemsandsuggestions.HongKongTranslationSocLtd,59(3),33-35.卞建华.(2008).传承与超越:功能主义翻译目的论研究.北京:中国社会科学出版社.连淑能.(2010).英汉对比研究.北京:高等教育出版社.黄钟文.(2013).“等效”理论视角下的社科文本汉译策略——以《理解社会网络》为例(pp.36-45).上海:复旦大学.李凡.(2014).目的论指导下对社科类文本的翻译探讨——以《社会科学研究方法》为例(pp.30-35).兰州:兰州大学.李智文.(2012).探索社科文本里英语长句的翻译策略.上海:复旦大学.廖七一.(2000).当代西方翻译理论探索,北京:译林出版社.刘敬国&何刚强.(2012).翻译通论.北京:外语教学与研究出版社.魏向清.(2010).人文社科术语翻译中的术语属性.外语学刊,6(3),165-168.15 AppendixISourceTextChapterTwoLiteratureReviewOverviewofPositivePsychologyParadigmThefieldofpositivepsychologywasformallyorganizedin1997byMartinSeligmanandMihalyCsikszentmihalyiinordertoexpandthefocusofpsychologyfromthatofsolelyfixingmentalhealthproblemstoalsounderstandingthatwhichgoesrightinlife(Linley,Joseph,Harrington,&Wood,2006).Althoughthestudyofhappinessandotherpositiveaspectsoflifewerepursuedinothermovements(e.g.,humanisticpsychologyinthe1950’s;Kristjansson,2012),positivepsychologywascreatedtounitethestudyofhappinessandotherpositiveaspectsoflifeunderoneresearchdomain.Seligman(2000)dividedthemainideasofpositivepsychologyintothreepillars:positiveexperiences(i.e.,positivepsychologicaloutcomes),personalitytraits(i.e.,characterstrengths),andsocialcontexts,whicharedescribedingreaterdetailinthenextsections.Sincethedebutofthismovementoveradecadeago,muchresearchhasbeendonewithadults,withlessemphasisonchildren;however,researchers(e.g.,Huebner,1991;McCullough,Emmons,&Tsang,2002;Suldo&Shaffer,2008)havealsobeganexploringthesethreepillarsastheypertaintochildren.Inthisliteraturereview,youthresearchwillbeusedwhenavailable;otherwise,researchwithadultswillbediscussed.PositiveExperience.Thefirstpillarofpositivepsychology,positiveexperience,referstoactivitiesandresultingmoodstatesthatmakelifeenjoyable.Theseincludeoptimism,curiosity,gratitude,lifesatisfaction,andhope.Thelatterthreeexperiences(i.e.,gratitude,lifesatisfaction,andhope)areparticularlysalientwhenmeasuringanindividual’shappinessbecausetheycapturepositiveemotionsreflectingone’spast,present,andfuture.Whilepositiveexperiencesaredesirableintheirownright(i.e.,asoutcomes),researchhasuncoveredamultitudeofbenefitsofhappiness(Lyubomirsky,King,&Diener,2005).Forexample,regardinghappinessandcreativeproblemsolving,peopleinhappymoodssolveproblemsinmoreeffective,creative,anddiversewaysthanpeopleinneutralornegativemoods(Fredrickson,2001).Inordertointegratepositiveexperiencewithintheexistingdefinitionofmentalhealth,16 researchershavepostulatedthatcompletementalhealthincludesboththeabsenceofpsychopathologyandthepresenceofpositiveexperience(Greenspoon&Saklofske,2001;Keyes,2005;Suldo&Shaffer,2008).Thisconcept,dubbedthe“DualFactorModel”ofmentalhealth,hasofferedaperspectivethatmayfacilitatetheincorporationofpositivepsychologicalresearchintomentalhealthpractice.Thismodelappearsparticularlyrelevanttotheschoolsettingasstudentswhoexperiencecompletementalhealthtendtoexperiencegreateracademicsuccessthanstudentswhoaresimplyfreefromsymptomsofpsychologicalproblems(Suldo&Shaffer,2008).Positiveexperiencehasbeenmostcommonlyoperationalizedasincludingtheindicatorsofsubjectivewell-being:highlifesatisfaction,highpositiveaffect,andlownegativeaffect.WithintheDualFactorModel,thetwofactorsofmentalhealth(i.e.,subjectivewell-beingandpsychopathology)combinetocreatefourdistinctgroups:CompleteMentalHealth(highsubjectivewell-beingandlowpsychopathology),Vulnerable(lowsubjectivewell-beingandlowpsychopathology),SymptomaticbutContent(highsubjectivewell-beingandhighpsychopathology),andTroubled(lowsubjectivewell-beingandhighpsychopathology；Suldo&Shaffer,2008).ResearchwithearlyadolescentsindicatesthattheCompleteMentalHealthgroupexperiencesthebestphysicalhealthandhighestacademicandsocialfunctioning,whiletheVulnerablegroupexperiencesloweracademicself-concept,motivation,andvaluesschoollesswhencomparedtotheCompleteMentalHealthgroup(Suldo&Shaffer).Suchdifferencesbetweentwogroupsofstudentswhodonotexperiencepsychopathology(i.e.,thetraditionalfactorconsideredsolelyinmentalhealthdetermination)justifytheexplorationofindicatorsofpositiveemotionalexperiences(inadditiontopsychopathology)tomostcomprehensivelyunderstandyouthmentalhealth.PositivePersonalityTraits.Thesecondpillar,positivepersonalitytraits,pertainstodispositionsthatincreasethelikelihoodofinterpersonalandvocationalsuccess(Seligman,2000).Alsoconceptualizedas“characterstrengths”(thetermusedinthisstudy),positivepersonalitytraitsdecreasethelikelihoodoftraumaornegativeadjustment(violence,depression,etc.)whilesimultaneouslyincreasingthelikelihoodofpositiveoutcomessuchasinterpersonalandschoolsuccess(Park&Peterson,2006).ParkandPetersonarguethatthissecondpillarofpositivepsychologyoccupiesthemostcentralrole,asitenablesaccesstopositiveexperienceandcreatespositivesocialgroupsoutofpositiveindividuals.Thatis,individualswithpositivepersonality17 traitsaremorelikelytoexhibithappiness,andgroups(e.g.,aschool)comprisedofpersonswithpositivepersonalitytraitsaremorelikelytofacilitatethepositivepsychologicaloutcomesofotherindividualswithinthegroup.Therearemanywaystoconceptualizecharacterstrengths.TheValuesinAction(VIA)projectidentified24ubiquitouslyvaluedtraitsthatareconsideredbeneficialinnumerouscultures(Peterson&Seligman,2004).Specifically,ParkandPeterson(2006)identifiedsixbroadvirtues,eachofwhicharecomprisedofthreetofivecharacterstrengths:Wisdom(i.e.,creativity,curiosity,open-mindedness,loveoflearning,andperspective),Courage(i.e.,honesty,bravery,perseverance,zest),Humanity(i.e.,kindness,love,andsocialintelligence),Justice(i.e.,fairness,leadership,andteamwork),Temperance(i.e.,forgiveness,modesty,prudence,andself-regulation)andTranscendence(i.e.,appreciationofbeauty,gratitude,hope,humor,andspirituality).Specificcharacterstrengthsvaryinlevelofimportanceduringdifferentstagesoflife.Forinstance,whilegratitudeandcuriosityarestronglyassociatedwithpositiveoutcomesinadulthood,socialintelligenceplaysalargerroleinadolescence(Park&Peterson).Inschool,characterstrengthsthatfacilitateprosocialbehaviorandsuccessfullearningenvironmentsarehighlyvalued.Toassesspersonalstrengthsofstudentsinschool,researchersseektoevaluate:Emotionalandbehavioralcompetencies,skills,andcharacteristicsthatcreateasenseofpersonalaccomplishment;contributetosatisfyingrelationshipswithfamilymembers,peers,andadults;enhanceone’sabilitytodealwithadversityandstress;andpromoteones’(sic)personalandacademicdevelopment.(Epstein&Sharma,1998,pp.3)Toachievethisend,Merrell,Cohn,andTom(2011)createdtheSocialEmotionalAssetsandResilienceScales(SEARS),anassessmentoffourdistinctconstructsthatrepresentindividualstrengths:Responsibility,Self-Regulation,SocialCompetence,andEmpathy.OneofthestrengthsassessedbyMerrelletal.isdirectlyincludedintheVIAstrengthsclassification(i.e.,self-regulation).ResponsibilitycloselyoverlapswiththeVIAstrengthofprudence(definedas“beingcarefulaboutone’schoices;”Park&Peterson,2006,p.67),whileempathyandsocial18 competencebothoverlapwithsocialintelligence(i.e.,beingawareofthemotivesandfeelingsofselfandothers;Park&Peterson).WhiletheVIAstrengthsinventoryallowsforamorecomprehensiveprofileofstrengths,theSEARSwasdesignedtomatchskillsthatcanbeeffectivelytaughtthroughschool-basedsocialemotionalcurriculum(e.g.,StrongKids;Merrell,Carrizales,Feuerborn,Gueldner,&Tran,2007a),thusmakingitapracticalassessmenttoolforresearchinschools.Additionally,thefocusonfourstrengthsinsteadof24makestheSEARSeasiertoutilizewithalargenumberofstudents,asfeweritemsarerequiredinameasureofonlyfourconstructs.Preventionandinterventionprogramsthatfocusonteachingsuchstrengths(i.e.,socialemotionalcurricula)havecreatedimprovementsinschoolattitudes,behavior,andperformance(Zins,Weissberg,Wang,&Walberg,2004).Improvementinschoolattitudesincludesincreasedstudentmotivation,coping,andsenseofcommunity.Behavioraloutcomesincludehigherclassroomparticipationandpro-socialbehavior,andfewerabsencesandsuspensions.Performanceoutcomesincludeachievementscoresacrossacademicsubjectsandoverallimprovementsinhigher-levelthinking.Suchfindingsindicatethatpositivecharactertraitsareassociatedwithpositiveoutcomes,andsuggestthatpositivecharactertraitsareamenabletointerventionviasuchmeansasSocialEmotionalLearning(SEL)curricula.Thereissomeconceptualoverlapbetweenpositiveexperiencesandpositivepersonalitytraits.Forexample,hopeandgratitudehavebeendiscussedintheliteratureasbothpositiveexperiencesandcharacterstrengths.Whenpositivepsychologicalconstructsare“state-like,”oroccuratoneparticularmomentintime,theyareconsideredpositiveexperiences.Ontheotherhand,whenpositiveconstructsare“trait-like”andarestableovertime,theyareconsideredcharacterstrengths(Park&Peterson,2006).Forexample,achildwhohasanupcomingtriptoanamusementparkmayexperiencehighlevelsofhope,buthopemaydiminishafterheorshefindsouthisorherfavoriteamusementparkhasbeenshutdown.Achildwhoishopefulovertime,however,mayremainhopefulthatanotherequallypositiveexperiencemaycomeinthefuture.Inasimilarvein,achildwhoreceivesalargesumofmoneyfromarelativemaybegratefulforthetimebeing,butanindividualwhoisconsistentlygratefulforeventhetiniestgesturesofferedbyothersismorelikelytoexperiencehappinessovertime(McCullough,Emmons,&Tsang,2002).Despitetheseconceptualdistinctions,characterstrengthsthatinvolvemood(i.e.,gratitudeand19 hope)involvedurableaccesstopositiveexperience,andareamenabletochange(e.g.,Emmons&McCullough,2003;Vilaythong,Arnau,Rosen,&Mascaro,2003),thusmakingthemappropriatetargetsforintervention.Forthepurposesofthecurrentstudy,trait-likegratitudeandhopewillbereferredtoaspositiveexperiencesbecausetheyaretobeevaluatedasoutcomes.PositiveSocialContexts.Thethirdpillarofpositivepsychologyhighlightstheinfluencethatthesocialcontextenactsupontheindividualswithin(Seligman,2000).Whenthisthirdpillarisappliedtotheschoolsetting,severalfactorsarisethatpotentiallycontributetothedevelopmentorhindranceofpositiveexperience.Emotionalwarmthfromteachersandpeers,trustbetweenclassmates,andtheperceptionthatschoolisapsychologicallysafeenvironmentarehighlyrelatedtoschoolsatisfactionandpositiveadjustment(Baker&Maupin,2009).Inparticular,successfulpeerrelationshipsariseasanimportantfactorintheoverallpositivityofaschoolclimate(Wentzel,Baker,&Russell,2006).Childrenwhoexperiencelowpeeracceptancegenerallyexperiencemoreacademicfailurethanthosewhoexperiencehigheracceptance(Wentzel,2005).Furthermore,aggressiveandwithdrawnbehaviorsaremorecommoninrejectedchildren,whilecomplianceandsocialbehaviorismorecommoninsociallyacceptedchildren(Wentzel,2005).Whiletheconsiderationofsocialproblemsandassociatednegativeoutcomesisimportant,thethirdpillarofpositivepsychologyemphasizesthatthedevelopmentofpositivesocialcircumstancesisequallyimportant.Forexample,healthydevelopment(operationalizedassocialcompetence,lifesatisfaction,trustofothersorauthority,andcivicengagement)hasbeenpredictedbypositiverelationshipswithpeers,parents,andastrongcommunityorientationinmidadolescence(O’Connor,2011).Thisareaofresearchreflectsamorepositivepsychologicalapproachtosocialcontext;theextenttowhichcharacterstrengthsandpositiveexperiencescanimprovenegativesocialcontextsisanimportantpartofpositivepsychology.Accordingly,theextenttowhichteachersandstudentscreatesafeenvironmentswithlowpeervictimizationmaybeaconceptofinterestwithinthesocialcontextumbrellaofpositivepsychology.Thethreepillarsofpositivepsychologyhavelargelybeenstudiedasseparateresearchthreads(Seligman,2000),yetthereisalargedegreeofinteractionbetweenpositiveexperience,personalitytraits,andsocialcontext.Forexample,socialcompetence(acharacterstrength)isoftendependentonsocialcontext,associalskillsthatareviableinonescenariomaybeunacceptableinanother(Wentzel,Baker,&Russell,2006).Furthermore,perceivedsocialsupport20 (positivesocialcontext)canprotectstudentswhoarevictimized(negativesocialcontext)fromadverseexperiencessuchasdepression(Tanigawa,Furlong,Felix,&Sharkey,2011).ThecurrentstudyalignswithParkandPeterson’s(2006)notionthatcharacterstrengthsarethemostinfluentialvariablesontheothertwopillarsbecausetheygrantaccesstopositiveexperiencesandcontributetopositivesocialgroups.Assuch,theproposedstudyseekstoevaluatetheextenttowhichspecificpositivecharacterstrengthscaninfluencepositiveexperiencesinspiteofadversesocialcontext(i.e.,peervictimization).Withinthefirstpillar,theproposedstudywillexaminestudents’gratitude,lifesatisfactionandhope.Inthesecondpillar,empathy,responsibility,self-regulation,andsocialcompetencewillbeexamined.Finally,intermsofsocialcontext,bullyingandvictimizationresearchwillbereviewedasitrelatestomentalhealth.Whilethecurrentstudydoesnotinvestigatepositivesocialcontextssuchashighteachersupport,itseekstoinvestigaterelationshipsbetweencharacterstrengthsandpositivepsychologicaloutcomesinconsiderationofadversityinthesocialcontext(i.e.,peervictimization).Inthefollowingliteraturereview,thethreepillarsofpositivepsychologyaredescribedmorefullyintermsofhowtheyrelatetothecurrentstudy.Withineachpillar,therelevantconstructs(e.g.,gratitude,lifesatisfaction,andhope)arereviewedintermsoftheirdefinition,measurement,relationshipwithadaptiveoutcomes,andevidenceformalleabilityviastrategiesforimprovingtheconstruct.Gapsintheliteraturewillbehighlightedtoprovidearationaleforthepurposeofthecurrentstudy.PositivePsychologicalOutcomesGratitude.Gratitudeisapositiveexperiencethatstemsfromsatisfactionwiththepast.Itinvolvestwoparts:acknowledgingthatadesirableeventhasbeenexperiencedandattributingthepositiveeventtoanexternalsource(Weiner,1985).Althoughgratitudecanexistasacharactertrait(Park&Peterson,2006),intermsofstate-likepositiveexperience,gratitudeisoftendefinedasatemporarycognitiveandaffectivestateresultingfrompositiveevents(Clore,Ortony,&Foss,1987).Measurement.Amongchildrenandadolescents,gratitudecanbeconfoundedwithgoodmanners(Bono&Froh,2006);butthereafewassessmenttooloptionscurrentlyavailablethatreliablyassessstateortraitgratitudeinyouth.Forexample,Frohetal.(2011)confirmedthatthe21 uni-dimensionalfactorstructureoftheGratitudeQuestionnaire-6(GQ-6;ameasuredevelopedforusewithadults)holdswithanadolescentpopulation(ages10to19).TheGQ-6,whichisassumedtocapturetrait-likegratitude,isthemostfrequentlyusedmeasureofgratitudeinpublishedstudies.State-likegratitudehasbeenmeasuredbyaskingstudentstorateaffectiveterms(e.g.,appreciative,grateful)intermsofhowmuchtheywerefeltinthepastday,ratedviaLikertscalessuchastheGratitudeAdjectiveChecklist(McCullough,Emmons,&Tsang,2002).Correlates.Amongsamplesofadults,state-likegratitudehasbeenpositivelyassociatedwithincreasedhappiness,pride,hope,andcontentment(Overwalle,Mervielde,&DeSchuyter,1995)andisinverselycorrelatedwithcontempt,jealousy,andhatred(Schimmack&Reisenzein,1997).Inadolescents,gratitudehasbeenassociatedwithlifesatisfaction,positiveaffect,optimism,andsocialsupport(Frohetal.,2009).Additionally,experimentalresearchhassuggestedthatinducinggratefulemotionscanincreasepositiveaffect,likelihoodofengaginginprosocialbehavior(e.g.,helpingsomeoneinneed),optimism,andphysicalhealth(Emmons&McCullough,2003).Inthisway,gratitudesimultaneouslyimprovesmoodandinterpersonalrelationships(Bono&Froh,2006).Althoughmuchofthisoutcomeresearchhasbeenconductedwithadults,someresearchwithyouthindicatessignificantcorrelationsbetweengratitudeandotherindicatorsofpositivefunctioning,suchasperceivedsocialsupportandoptimism(Park&Peterson,2006),andacademicachievementandmotivationtoconnectwiththecommunity(Froh,Emmons,Card,Bono,&Wilson,2011).Gratitudehasbeenfoundtopredictlifesatisfactionovertime(Gillhametal.,2011).Furthermore,experimentalresearchsuggestedapossiblecausallinkbetweengratitudeandanemotionalindicatorofsubjectivewell-beingamongadolescents(Froh,Kashdan,Ozimkowski,&Miller,2009).Specifically,youthwhodeliveredlettersexpressinggratitudeexperiencedsubsequentincreasesingratitude(asmeasuredbytheGAC)andpositiveaffect.Theexpressionofgratitudeishighlyvaluedinnumerousculturesaroundtheworld(Emmons&Crumpler,2000).AccordingtoMcCullough,Kilpatrick,Emmons,andLarson(2001),whenanindividualexpressesgratitude,three“moral”eventstakeplace.Therecipientdemonstratesthattheyvaluethesource(i.e.,moralbarometer),therecipientencouragesthegiver’sfuturegenerousbehavior(i.e.,moralreinforcer),andthegiverencouragestherecipienttocommitprosocialbehaviorinthefuture(i.e.,moralmotive).Duetoitsabilitytofacilitatepositive22 socialexperiencesforthegiver(Tsang,2006;Tsang2007),therecipient(Clark,1975),andevenuninvolvedpeople(Bartlett&Desteno,2006),gratitudeislikelyanimportantoutcomeinacontextasinherentlysocialasschool.Promotinggratitude.Gratitudeisastatetypicallyinducedbythereceiptofsomethingvalued(McCulloughetal.,2001).However,evenifachild’senvironmentisnotparticularlygiving,therearewaystoincreasegratitude.Asdiscussedpreviously,gratitudeinyouthcanbedirectlyincreasedbyengagingingratefulbehaviorssuchastheletter-writingintervention,andthiseffectisevenmorepowerfulforchildrenwhoexperiencelowpositiveaffectbeforetheintervention(Froh,Kashdan,Ozimkowski,&Miller,2009).Anothereffectivewaytoincreasegratitudeistoencourageyouthtomakelistsofpositiveeventsintheirlives(Froh,Sefick,&Emmons,2008).Giventhatgratitudeispronetochangeviainterventionandisassociatedwithnumerousbenefits,itisimportanttounderstandhowitisaffectedbycharacterstrengthsandsocialcontext.Lifesatisfaction.Lifesatisfactionisthecognitiveassertionthatvaluableconditionsinone’slifearemetbasedonthecriteriamostimportanttotheindividual(Pavot&Diener,1993).Distinctfromhighpositiveaffectandlownegativeaffect(temporaryemotionsthatmostcommonlyreflectenjoymentlevelassociatedwithone’scurrentactivity),lifesatisfactionentailsacognitiveassessmentthatthecriteriaforagoodlifehavebeenmet(Suldo,Huebner,Freidrich,&Gilman,2006).Measurement.Self-reporttoolshavebeencreatedtoevaluatehowsatisfiedindividualsarewithspecificareasoflifesuchaswork,home,orschool;othermeasuresareconcernedwithsatisfactionoverall,orgloballifesatisfaction(Suldoetal,2006).Althoughtherearecurrentlymanytoolsforassessinglifesatisfactioninmultipledomainsoflife(seeProctor,Linley,&Maltby,2008,forareview),thefocusofthecurrentstudyisonoverallappraisalsoflifesatisfaction,thereforeonlyglobalmeasuresarediscussedinthissection.TheStudentsLifeSatisfactionScale(SLSS;Huebner,1991)wasdevelopedtoassessthelifesatisfactionofyouthbetweentheagesof8and18.Youthindicateagreementwithsevenstatements,suchas“Mylifeisbetterthanmostkids.”AnotheroptionformeasuringgloballifesatisfactionistheSatisfactionwithLifeScale(SWLS;Diener,Emmons,Larsen,&Griffin,1985).TheSWLSwasdevelopedforanadultpopulation,butisoftenusedwithadolescents.TheSWLShasfiveitems(e.g.,ifIweretolivemy23 lifeoveragainIwouldchangealmostnothing)thatareratedfrom1(StronglyDisagree)to7(StronglyAgree).FrequentresearchwithadultsleadDienertoassertthatindividuals’sumscoreontheSWLSplacesthemintosevencategoriesoflifesatisfaction:extremelydissatisfied(scoreof5-9),dissatisfied(10-14),slightlydissatisfied(15-19),neutral(20),slightlysatisfied(21-25),satisfied(26-30),andextremelysatisfied(31-35).Correlates.Globallifesatisfaction,mostoftenmeasuredbytheSLSSorSWLS,isassociatedwithahostofoptimaloutcomesinyouth,includinghighself-efficacy(Huebner,Gilman,&Laughlin,1999;Nevin,Carr,Shelvin,Dooley,&Breaden,2005),optimism(Extremera,Duran,&Rey,2007),locusofcontrol(Gilman&Huebner,2006),andextraversion(Heaven,1989).Higherlifesatisfactionalsoco-occurswithmoreacademicsuccess(Gilman&Huebner),thoughtherelationshipwithacademicachievementismoderateatbest.Studentswithhighlifesatisfactionareunlikelytohavebehaviorproblemsinschool(Valois,Paxton,Zullig,&Huebner,2006),poorperceptionsoftheirhealth,actinunhealthfulways,orexperiencerestrictedaccesstoactivitiesduetohealthproblems(Piko,2006;Suldo&Shaffer,2008;Zullig,Valois,Huebner,&Yoon,2005).Intermsofsocialadjustment,studentswithhighlifesatisfactionaremorelikelytoperceivesocialsupportfromchildrenandadults(Gilman&Huebner,2006;Suldo&Huebner,2006),experienceasenseofattachmenttotheirschool(Gilman,2001),havepositivepeerrelationships(Dew&Huebner,1994),andexperiencelowlevelsofvictimization(Martin&Huebner,2007).Promotinglifesatisfaction.Twowaystoincreaselifesatisfactionhavebeendiscussedintheliterature(Lyubomirsky,Sheldon,&Schkade,2005):indirectapproachesanddirectapproaches.Toindirectlyincreaselifesatisfaction,individualsinastudent’slifecanimproveconditionsintheenvironment(e.g.,allowforparticipationinmotivatingextracurricularactivitiessuchasbandorsports)orincreaseprosocialinteractionsand/orsupportfrommeaningfulothers(Suldo,Huebner,Savage,&Thalji,2011).Todirectlyincreaselifesatisfaction,mentalhealthprofessionalscanattempttoimprovethechild’sskillsorbehaviors.Researchershavefoundsomesupportforadolescents’lifesatisfactiontobeamenabletointervention(Suldo,Savage,&Mercer,inpress),thoughdirectapproacheshavemostlybeenstudiedwithadults(Farrell,Valois,&Meyer,2003;King,2001).Hope.Thefinalpositiveexperiencetobestudiedinthecurrentstudyishope;definedby24 Snyderandcolleagues(1991)as“…apositivemotivationalstatethatisbasedonaninteractivelyderivedsenseofsuccessful(a)agency(goal-directedenergy),and(b)pathways(planningtomeetgoals)”(Snyder,Irving,&Anderson,1991,p.287).Thisseminaldefinitionindicatesthreemaincomponents.Specifically,hopefulindividualshavecleargoals(goals),thewillandenergytopursuethem(agency),andplansonhowtheirgoalswillbeattained(pathways).Hopefulindividualscreatetwomaintypesofgoals:achievingpositiveoutcomesandavoidingnegativeoutcomes(Snyder,2002).Inthisway,ahopefulstudentmayhavethemotivationandaplanforguaranteeingapassinggradeorpreventinganunwantedbreakupwitharomanticpartner.Muchlikelifesatisfaction,Snyder’sconceptofhopeisnotanaffectivestateortrait,butratherreflectslevelsofthought.Thatis,hopeprovidesaccesstopositiveemotions,buthopeitselfdoesnotcompriseapositiveemotionalstate(Snyder).Hopedeliverspositiveemotionalstatesonlywhenitinvolvesthesuccessfulcompletionofgoals,whereasfailuresareassociatedwithnegativeemotionalstates(Snyderetal.1996).Highlevelsofhopeareassociatedwithfrequentattemptstoachievegoals,thusincreasingthelikelihoodofsuccessandpositiveemotionaloutcomes(Snyder,1999).Further,highlevelsofhope(andlifesatisfaction)entailpositivecognitiveexperiences.Measurement.ThemostcommonlyusedmeasureofhopeinchildrenistheChildren’sHopeScale(CHS;Snyderetal.,1997).TheCHShassixitemsthatmeasureagencyandpathwaysthinking.TheCHShasbeenusedfrequentlywithchildrenandadolescents,includinghighschoolstudents.AdolescentsmayalsocompletetheHopeScale(Snyderetal.,1991),whichwasdevelopedforadults.TheHopeScalehastwelveitemssplitequallyintothreegroupsmeasuringagency(e.g.,Ienergeticallypursuemygoals),pathways(e.g.,Icanthinkofmanywaystogetoutofajam),andarbitraryinformation(i.e.,distracterquestions).Correlates.Inlow-incomeadolescents,pathways-thinkinghasbeenlinkedtonumerousadaptivecopingstrategies,includingproblemsolving,planning,andpositivethinking(Roesch,Duangado,Vaughn,Aldridge,&Villodas,2010).Theprotectivenatureofhopeisillustratedinbyfindingsfromastudywith132fifth-grade,low-incomestudents(Cedeno,Elias,Kelly,&Chu,2010).Specificfindingsincludethat(a)studentswhoexperiencedorwitnessedviolenceexperiencedlowself-concept,(b)studentswithhighhope,asmeasuredbytheCHS,experiencedhigherself-concept,and(c)studentswithhighhopewhowereexposedtoandpersonallyaffected25 byschoolviolencewerelesslikelytoexperiencereducedself-conceptthantheirpeerswithlowhope(Cedeno,Elias,Kelly,&Chu).Highhopehasalsobeenfoundtopredictlifesatisfactionovertimeamonghighschoolstudents(Gillhametal.,2011).Promotinghope.Pathwaysthinkingcanbeincreasedbyteachingyouthhowtocreateachievablegoals(e.g.,smallincrementalgoalsinsteadoflargegoals)andhowtocreatemultiplesolutionstothesameproblemsuchthatfailureofoneapproachdoesnotprecludeoverallsuccess(Snyderetal.2001).Agencycanbeeffectivelyimprovedbyensuringthatstudentschoosegoalstheyseeasimportant(e.g.,byallowingthemratherthanadultstocreatetheirgoals),basefuturegoalsonpresentperformance,encouragingoptimisticself-talk,andreflectingonpastsuccess(Snyderetal.).Arecentstudyprovidedsupportfortheefficacyofsuchhope-focusedinterventionsprovidedtoearlyadolescentsatschool(Marques,Lopez,&Pais-Ribero,2011).Relationshipsbetweengratitude,lifesatisfaction,andhope.Althoughgratitudeandhopearepositivepsychologicaloutcomes,theycanalsobefosteredascharacterstrengths(Park&Peterson,2006).Whenconceptualizedandtargetedassuch,bothgratitudeandhopehavebeenassociatedwithlifesatisfaction(Park,Peterson,&Seligman,2004)andhavebeenfoundtopredictlifesatisfactionovertime(Gillhametal.,2011;Park&Peterson,2008).Forthisreason,whenmakinghypothesesaboutthethreepositiveoutcomesexaminedinthecurrentstudy,itisimportanttoconsiderthathopeandgratitude,inadditiontobeingpredictedbyotherfactors(suchascharacterstrengths)mayinturncontributetovarianceinlifesatisfaction.Gapsintheliterature.Whileresearchonyouthexposedtoviolence(Cedeno,Elias,Kelly,&Chu,2010)indicatedthattrait-likehope(acharacterstrength)canserveasacompensatoryresiliencefactor,itisstillunknownhowhopeasanoutcomecanbeprotectedfromaversiveevents(i.e.,peervictimization)orbeincreasedbyothercharacterstrengths(e.g.,socialcompetence).Furthermore,whilenumerousVIAstrengthsareassociatedwithlifesatisfaction(e.g.,Gillham,2011;Kashdan&Steger,2007),itisnotyetknownwhethercharacterstrengthsthataretargetedbyschoolcurriculahavethisrelationship.Further,theinterconnectionsbetweentheseconstructsarelessunderstood.Findingsfromsomeresearchhaveindicatedthatpositiveaffectcanbeincreasedbybothgratitude(Frohetal.,2009)andhope(Bailey,Eng,Frisch,&Snyder,2007),whileothershavepostulatedthatempathymayinfluencegratitude(Bono&McCullough,2006).Greaterunderstandingoftherelationshipsbetweentheseexperienceswill26 facilitategreaterunderstandingofhowtoachievepositivementalhealth.CharacterStrengths:AssetsandResilienceInpartbecausestrength-basedassessmentwasseldomutilizedbeforethemostrecentdecade(Rhee,Furlong,Turner,&Harari,2001),theliteratureinthisareahasyettofullydevelop,butitisinformedbyresultsofinterventionstudiesthattargetpresumedstrengthsaswellascorrelationalresearchwithadultsandyouth.Afterabriefdefinitionofassetsandresilience,thedefinitionandimportanceofeachoftheconstructsintheSEARSwillbeprovided.SincetheSEARSisanewinstrumentandtheconstructsthereinhavenotextensivelybeenresearchedalongsidewell-being,researchlinkingotherstrength-basedassessmenttoolstolifesatisfactionwillbediscussedaswell.Assets.Thetermassetreferstotheabilityofatraittoprovideaccesstopositiveoutcomes.InthepasttenyearsmuchresearchhasbeenconductedusingtheVIAmeasureofstrengthswithadults.Thesestudiessuggestthatlifesatisfactionandhappinessarepredictedbystrengthsincludedunderthecategoriesoftranscendence(e.g.,hope),temperance(e.g.,self-regulation),andintellect(e.g.,open-mindedness;Gillhametal.,2011).Relationshipshavealsobeenfoundbetweenlifesatisfactionandcuriosity(Kashdan&Steger,2007),aswellaswithlove,hope,andzest(Peterson,Ruch,Beermann,Park,&Seligman,2007).Associationsbetweenassetsandyouthoutcomeswillbeexaminedfollowingthedefinitionofresilienceandthespecificassetsoffocusinthecurrentstudy.Resilience.Increasesinpositivetraitsareimportant,butalsoofinteresttoresearchersisthepossibilitythatincreasingsocialemotionalskillscanprotectchildrenfromnegativeoutcomes(Harlacher&Merrell,2012).Theabilitytodowelldespiteunfavorablecircumstancesisreferredtoasresilience;aconceptlongstudiedinthefieldofmedicinethatonlyemergedinbehavioralsciencesinthe1970s(Masten,2007).Inordertodemonstrateresilience,anindividualmustbepresentedwithachallengeorthreateningcircumstancethatisovercomeviaaresiliencefactor(Mastenetal,1991).Therefore,forcharacterstrengths(e.g.,empathy)toserveasresiliencefactors,theymustprotecttheindividualfromsomeunwantedoutcome(e.g.,negativeaffectorreducedlifesatisfaction).27 SocialEmotionalAssetsandResilienceCurriculumAsidefromstrengthsdefinedaccordingtotheVIA-Youth,otherresearchhasexaminedthetargetsofschool-basedsocial-emotionalcurricula.Asocialemotionalcurriculumisdefinedasasetofpedagogicalpracticesorientedtowardthegoalofincreasingstudents’abilitytounderstandandregulatetheiremotions,makeresponsibledecisions,dealwithstressfulsituations,createmeaningfulrelationships,andbuildanappreciationandunderstandingofthefeelingsofothers(CollaborativeforAcademic,Social,andEmotionalLearning[CASEL],2008).Asimultaneousintentionistocircumventnegativeoutcomesbycreatingresilientandadaptablechildren(Greenbergetal.,2003).Whilethepurposeofthispaperisnottoevaluateasocial-emotionalcurriculum,abriefdiscussionofthetopicisimportantasonespecificcurriculumprovidesasystematicwayoftargetingcharacterstrengthsforintervention.Inordertoincreasecharacterstrengthsofchildrenandadolescents,Merrellandcolleaguesdevelopedaseriesofsocial-emotionalcurriculaforchildrenofallagestermedStrongKids(Merrell,Carrizales,Feuerborn,Gueldner,&Tran,2007a,2007b,2007c;Merrell,Parisi,&Whitcomb,2007).TomeasuretheskillstargetedintheStrongKidscurriculum,Merrell(2008)andCohn(2011)conductedfactoranalysestodeterminehowpositivepersonalitytraitscouldbegroupedtogetherforthepurposesofpsychologicalassessment.Afterextraneousoroverlappingitemswereremoved,fourmainfactorsemerged:socialcompetence,self-regulation,responsibility,andempathy(Cohn,2011;Merrell,2008).Agrowingbodyofevidencesuggeststhatthespecificskillstaughtinsocial-emotionalcurricula(e.g.,responsibility)areindeedassets,astheyincreasesocialemotionalknowledgeandcopingstrategies(Merrelletal.,2008;Marchantetal.,2010),academicachievement(Elias,2004;Greenbergetal.,2003),andprosocialbehavior(Caldarella,Christensen,Kramer,&Kronmiller,2009).TheStrongKidscurriculumhasbeendemonstratedtoimprovetheskillsmeasuredbytheSEARS(Harlacher&Merrell,2010).Asresiliencefactors,socialemotionalcurriculahavesuccessfullyreducedinternalizingbehavior(Caldarellaetal.,2009;Marchantetal.,2010).Someresearchhasalsoindicatedthatsocialemotionalcurriculaproducesignificantimprovementsofconductproblems(Durlak,Weissberg,Dymnicki,Taylor,&Schellinger,2010).ThefactthatthesecurriculacanimpacteachoftheskillstargetedbytheSEARSmeansthatthesefourstrengthsarepracticalchoicesforintervention,andthusunderstandingtheirassociatedbenefitsisimportant.28 Socialcompetence.Socialcompetencereferstoacomplexandimportantskillsetincludingthreesub-areas,namelyadaptivebehavior(i.e.,abilitytofunctionindependentlyasexpectedforone’sage;Grossman,1983),socialskills(i.e.,socialbehaviorsthatleadtodesirablesocialoutcomes;Merrell,2007),andpeerrelations(i.e.,extenttowhichoneisacceptedbytheirpeers;Merrell,2007).SocialcompetenceasmeasuredbytheSEARSfocusesprimarilyonthelattertwoaspectsofthedefinition.Furthermore,whilemanycomponentsofadaptivebehaviorarerelatedtosocialcompetence,thistermalsoreferstoawidearrayofcharacteristics(e.g.,properuseofaspoonorstraw;Sparrow,Cicchetti,&Balla,1989)thatarenotrelatedtosocialcompetenceandarebeyondthescopeofthisstudy.Socialskillsarenecessarytoaccesstheinterpersonalrewardsofpeerrelations.Althoughtheconstructofpeerrelationsismoreofanoutcomethanabehavior,itisnecessarytoconsiderwhendetermininganindividual’scompetencebecauseanindividualwithstrongsocialskillswhoisnotacceptedbyhisorherpeersdoesnotnecessarilyhavehighsocialcompetence(Merrelletal.,2007).Therefore,todetermineifsocialskillsaresufficientlydevelopedtoprovideaccesstosocialresources,itisimportanttomeasurethemalongsidepeerrelations.OntheSEARS,examplesofitemsmeasuringsocialskillsinclude“Igivecomplimentstootherpeople”and“Iamagoodlistenerwhenotherpeoplehavesomethingtosay,”whilepeerrelationsaremeasuredbyitemssuchas“Otherpeoplelikeme”(Merrell,Cohn,&Tom,2011).Relationshiptomentalhealth.Burt,Obradovic,Long,andMasten(2008)citenumerousexamplesofpoormentalhealthaffectingsocialcompetence(Hinshaw,1992;Mastenetal.,2005;Patterson,Reid,&Dishion,1992),howeveritisalsopossiblethatsocialcompetenceinfluencesmentalhealth(e.g.,Cole,Martin,Powers,&Truglio,1996),orthatbothareinfluencedbythirdvariablessuchasafinancialsituation(Burtetal.,2008).Giventhatthewelldespiteunfavorablecircumstancesisreferredtoasresilience;aconceptlongconsequencesofpeerrejectioncanpredictinternalizingproblems(Hymel,Rubin,Rowden,&Lemare,1990),Burtetal.soughttoclarifytherelationshipsbetweenmentalhealthandsocialcompetenceusingstructuralequationmodeling(SEM).Intheirstudy,socialcompetencewasprimarilymeasuredviapeeracceptancethroughpeer,self,andparentreportusinginterviewsandtheRevisedClassPlaypeernominationprocedure(Gestetal.,2006).InternalizingandexternalizingbehaviorweremeasuredviatheChildBehavior29 Checklist(CBCL;Achenbach&Edelbrook,1983).Totestthepossibilitythatthirdvariableshadasignificantimpactonsocialcompetenceorpsychopathology,theauthorsalsomeasuredparentingquality,IQ,andSES.Across-sectionalsample(ages8-12)wasassessedacrossfourtimepoints,spanningatotalof20years.Onlythefindingsfromanalysisofthefirsttwotimepoints(i.e.,youthandadolescence)arediscussedbecauseadultoutcomesarebeyondthescopeofthisstudy.Beginningwithaparsimoniousmodelthatsimplymeasuredeachvariableasitpredicteditselfinfuturetimepoints(e.g.,Time1externalizingbehaviorpredictingTime2externalizingbehavior),theauthorssuccessivelyaddedparameters(e.g.,Time1socialcompetencepredictingTime2internalizingbehavior)untiltheyidentifiedamodelwithsuperiorfit.Thesuperiormodelshowedbaselineinversecorrelationsbetweensocialcompetenceandinternalizing/externalizingproblems.Further,socialcompetenceinchildhoodpredictedlowadolescentinternalizingproblems.Althoughthismodelsuggeststhatsocialcompetenceinfluencespsychopathology,asimilarmodelhasnotyetbeentestedwithpositiveexperiences,whichwouldbeinlinewithcallstoexaminementalhealthcomprehensivelyviaadualfactormodelthatconsidersbothsubjectivewell-beingandpsychopathology.Self-regulation.Althoughitisanothercomplicatedandvastlystudiedconstruct,self-regulationasmeasuredinthecurrentstudy(e.g.,“Istaycalmwhenthereisaproblemoranargument,”SEARS;Merrell,Cohn,&Tom,2010)bestfitsdefinitionsthatreferto“effortfulcontrol”(Liew,2012).Therefore,onlyresearchpertainingtothisrelativelybehavioraldefinitionwillbereviewedhere.Liewconcludesthatchildrenwhoareabletoinhibitimpulsiveormaladaptiveresponsesbeforetheyoccurareviewedmorepositivelybyteachersandpeersthanthosewhoactontheseimpulses(Blair,Denham,Kochanoff,&Whipple,2004;Liew,Eisenberg,&Reiser,2004;Olson,Sameroff,Kerr,Lopez,&Wellman,2005).Additionally,childrenwhocancontroltheirbehaviorexperiencehigheracademicachievementthanthosewhodonot(Valiente,Lemery-Chalfant,Swanson,&Reiser,2008).Inadditiontothesesocialandacademicbenefits,self-regulationalsohasappearedtoassociatewithmentalhealth.Relationshiptomentalhealth.Intheformofeffortfulcontrol,self-regulationcanbufferadolescentsfromdevelopingexternalizingproblemsinunstablefamilyenvironments(Bakker,Ormel,Verhulst,&Oldehinkel,2010).Additionally,childrenwhoreportedexperiencingfearandfrustrationonapersonalitymeasuredidnotexperiencesubsequentinternalizingorexternalizing30 problemsiftheyalsoreportedhigheffortfulcontrol(Oldehinkel,Hartman,Ferdinand,Verhulst,&Ormel,2007),suggestingthattheabilitytoregulateone’sself(e.g.,stayingcalmduringarguments,thinkingbeforeaction)mayreducementalhealthproblems.Self-regulationasmeasuredbytheVIAinventoryhasbeenfoundtopredictadolescentlifesatisfactionaoveratwo-yeartimeperiodduring9thand10thgrade(Gillhametal.,2011).Responsibility.Auniversaldefinitionofresponsibilityisnotavailable;however,CASELdefinesresponsibilityas“makingdecisionsbasedonconsiderationofethicalstandards,safetyconcerns,appropriatesocialnorms,respectforothers,andlikelyconsequencesofvariousactions;applyingdecision-makingskillstoacademicandsocialsituations;contributingtothewell-beingofone’sschoolandcommunity”(Haggerty,Elgin,&Woolley,2011)SincethisdefinitionisrelativelycompatiblewiththeitemsontheSEARS(e.g.,“Iamgoodatmakingdecisions”and“Ithinkaboutmyproblemsinwaysthathelp;”Merrell,Cohn,&Tom,2010),thisisthepreferreddefinitionforthecurrentstudy.Relationshiptomentalhealth.Interventionswithearlyadolescentstargetingsometypesofresponsibility(i.e.,respondtotriggersofaggressioninnon-violentwaysthatentailacceptanceofpersonalresponsibilityforthesituationandsocialproblem-solving)havebeensuccessfulindecreasingdisciplinereferrals(Farrell,Meyer,&White,2001),havereducedprovocationsfrompeersandpeerpressuretousedrugs(Farrell,Valois,&Meyer,2002),andhavereducedreferralsforviolentbehavior(Farrell,Meyer,Sullivan,&Kung,2003).Althoughtheeffectshavenotyetbeensystematicallyevaluated,acurriculumhasalsobeendevelopedtoincreaseresponsibilityandempowermenttoreduceadolescentvulnerabilitytopeervictimization(Wiseman,2009).Nostudiestodatehaveexplicitlyinvestigatedtherelationshipbetweenpositiveindicatorsofmentalhealthandageneraltendencytowardshighresponsibility.TheVIAconstructofPrudence,whichresemblesresponsibility,hasbeenfoundtopredictadolescentlifesatisfactionoverthecourseoftwoyearsin9thand10thgrade(Gillhametal.,2011).Empathy.Alonghistoryofuseofthisterminpsychologicalresearchmakesdefiningempathyachallenge(Redmond,1989).However,forthepurposesofthisstudy,themostappropriatedefinitionseparatestwoelementsofempathy:cognitiveandemotionalempathy(Davis,1994;Duan&Hill,1996).Cognitiveempathyreferstoanindividual’sabilitytotaketheperspectiveofanother,whileemotional(alsoreferredtoasaffective)empathyreferstotheextent31 towhichonefeelsanother’semotions.TheitemsontheSEARS-Ameasurecognitiveempathy(e.g.“Iamgoodatunderstandingthepointofviewofotherpeople”),butnotemotionaloraffectiveempathy.Relationshiptomentalhealth.Someresearchwithyouthhasfoundthatincreasingempathyimprovesinterpersonalfunctioning(Stephan&Finlay,1999).Furthermore,Lazaruspostulatedthatempathyisanecessarycomponentforgratitude(1994),andempathyhasbeenpositivelyassociatedwithprosocialadjustmentcharacteristics,suchascreatingandmaintainingfriendships(Litvack-Milleretal.,1997).Regardinglinkstopsychopathology,lowempathyinadolescentshasbeenassociatedwithexternalizingbehaviors(Miller&Eisenberg,1988),includingaggression(Joliffe&Farrington,2007),disruptivebehaviordisorders(deWied,vanBoxtel,Matthys,&Meeus,2012),andcallous-unemotionaltraits(deWiedetal.;Frick&Dickens,2006).Adolescentshighinempathyhavebeenfoundtoexperiencefewerinternalizingproblemsandempathycanmoderatetherelationshipbetweenpoorpeerrelationsandinternalizing/externalizingbehavior(Gleason,Jensen-Campbell,&Ickes,2009).Researchhasnotyetevaluatedtheconnectionbetweenempathyandlifesatisfactioninyouth;however,caregiversofelderlyadultshavebeenfoundtoreportfewerdepressivesymptomsandhigherlifesatisfactionifthecaregivershavehighcognitiveempathy(Lee,Brennan,&Daly,2001).Despitethisresearchonthepossiblepsychologicalbenefitofempathy,recentstudieson“empatheticdistress”suggestthatindividualswithhighempathymayfeelmorenegativeemotionsinthefaceofstrainsinsocialrelationships(Smith&Rose,2011).Thatis,whenanindividualwithhighemotional(oraffective)empathywitnessesothersindistress,theymayinternalizethefeelingsofdistresseveniftheyarenotinvolvedintheconflict.SmithandRoseassessedemotionalempathy,thereforeitisunclearwhethercognitiveempathy(asmeasuredontheSEARS-A)willhavethesameeffect.However,SmithandRosealsofoundthatsocialperspective-taking,whichissimilartocognitiveempathy,increasedthelikelihoodofexperiencingempatheticdistress.Thereforeitisimportanttoanticipatethepossibilitythatempathywillserveasanadditionalriskfactorratherthanaprotectivefactor.OtherAssets/StrengthsPredictiveofPositivePsychologicalOutcomesAlthoughthereislimitedresearchlinkingStrongKidsandtheconstructsmeasuredinthe32 SEARStopositiveexperiences,previouslyestablishedmeasuresofstrengths,inparticularthestrengthsintheValuesinAction(VIA)classificationsystem(Peterson&Seligman,2004),havebeenlinkedtowell-beingtovaryingdegrees.Ingeneral,strengthsthatinvolvegettingclosertoothersorbuildingfriendships(e.g.,socialintelligence)aremorehighlyassociatedwithsocialsuccessthanself-orientedstrengths(e.g.,appreciationofbeauty;Park&Peterson,2008).Mostofthisstrength-basedresearchhasbeenconductedwithadults(Park&Peterson,2006);however,adolescentshavebeenincreasinglyincludedinthisresearchthread.Forexample,Froh,Sefick,andEmmons(2008)foundthattranscendence-basedinterventions(e.g.,focusingonhumorandspirituality)increaselifesatisfactionwithlifeandwithschool.Heedingacalltomeasurestrengthsinacomprehensivefashiontoavoidoverlookingspuriousrelationships(Dahlsgaard,2005),Gillhamandcolleagues(2011)evaluatedthepredictivepoweroftheVIAsurveyinitsentiretytodetectuniquerelationshipsbetweenstrengthsandwell-being.Inthisstudy,149studentsin9thgradecompletedtheRevisedValuesinActionSurvey(VIA-Youth;Park&Peterson,2006)andtheSLSSfourtimesovertwoyears.Afterconductingaprincipalcomponentsanalysis,theycollapsedthestrengthsintofivefactors:transcendence(e.g.,humor),temperance(e.g.,self-regulation),intellectual(learningrelated),other-directed(e.g.,cooperation),andleadership(e.g.,advisingothers).Strengthsandlifesatisfactionwereexaminedinthreewavestominimizeemphasisonspuriousrelationships.Theyidentifiedstrengthsthatpredictedwell-beinginamixed-modelANCOVA,thenconductedabackwardstepwiseproceduretodetectstrengthsthatpredictlifesatisfactionwhilecontrollingforotherstrengths.Logisticregressionanalyseswereusedtodeterminewhetherstrengthsindicatedinstep1andstep2couldaccountforchangesinlifesatisfactionovertime.Gillhametal.foundthatingeneral,transcendencepredictedSWB,butnotviceversa.Transcendence,temperance,other-directed,andintellectualstrengthswererobustindicatorsoffuturelifesatisfaction,butonlytranscendencepredictedlifesatisfactionwhilecontrollingforotherstrengths.Thesefindingsnotonlyindicatethepredictivevalidityofcharacterstrengthsinyouth,butalsosuggestthatexaminingaportionofastrengths-basedassessment(e.g.,onlyonefactor,suchastemperance)canleadresearcherstomakeerroneousconclusions.Inthespiritofthesefindings,alloftheconstructsintheSEARSareplannedtobeanalyzedsimultaneouslyintheproposedstudy.Inadditiontopredictinglifesatisfaction,strengthshavealsobeendemonstratedtoincrease33 lifesatisfactionwhentargetedthroughstrength-basedinterventions.Proctorandcolleagues(2011)implementedaninterventioncalledStrengthsGym,inwhich319studentsin8thand9thgradeeitherattendedtheirusualclassschedule(controlgroup)ortooklessonsandparticipatedinactivitiesthatdefineandtargeteachofthestrengthsintheVIAsurvey(treatmentgroup).LifesatisfactionwasassessedviatheSLSSonceatbaselineandagainwhentheinterventionterminatedseveralmonthslater.Comparedtostudentsinthecontrol,studentsinthetreatmentgrouphadsignificantlyhigherlifesatisfactionpost-treatment,evenaftercontrollingforbaselinelifesatisfaction.Intermsofresilienceinschool,oneimportantriskfactortoconsiderisvictimizationfrompeers.Thatis,whilesomechildrenwhoexperiencevictimizationsufferfrommaladjustment,othersdonot(Juvonen&Graham,2001),leadingresearcherstoquestionwhatdifferencesmightprotectstudentsfromnegativeoutcomes.Someprotectivefactorsariseinthehomeandcommunity;forexample,religiosityandfamilysupportreducethelikelihoodofconductproblemsinvictimizedyouth(Perkins&Jones,2004).However,thesehomeandcommunityfactorsmaynotalwaysbeeasytoinfluenceforschoolpersonnel,makingtheinvestigationoftrainableskillsthatprotectchildrenaworthwhileinvestment.AmongtheskillsassessedbytheSEARS(i.e.,social-competence,self-regulation,empathy,andresponsibility),thereissignificantpotentialformitigatingrisk.Self-regulationhasbeenshowntobufferconsequencesassociatedwithparentalcoholconsumption(e.g.,neglectingone’sresponsibilities)inthechildrenofalcoholicparents(Pearson,D’Lima,&Kelley,2011),andinterventionsthatincreaseself-regulationresultindecreasedconductproblemsasindicatedbydisciplinaryreferralsandsuspensions(Wyman,Cross,Brown,Yu,Tu,&Eberly,2010).Empathyisinverselyassociatedwithaggressiveandcriminalbehavior(Joliffe&Farrington,2004;Miller&Eisenberg,1988),andispositivelyassociatedwithforgiveness(McCulloughetal.,1997).Despitethefactthatsomestrengthshavebeenshowntoreducenegativeoutcomesinspiteofrisk(e.g.,self-regulationprotectingchildrenofalcoholicparents),manyofthevariableshaveonlybeenexaminedasassets(e.g.,thegeneralpositiveeffectofempathy).Gapintheliterature.Giventheapparentmalleabilityofintrapersonalstrengthsandtheirconnectiontomentalhealth,includingpositiveindicatorsofwell-being,furtherexplorationofhowcharacterstrengthsrelatetopositivepsychologicaloutcomesisimportant.Whilethe34 constructsintheVIAsurveyhavedemonstratedpowerfuleffectsonlifesatisfaction,thelengthofthesurvey(i.e.,240items)mayprecludeitsuseinsomeschoolsettingswheretimeforassessmentislimitedforlargenumbersofstudents.Furthermore,thelargeoverlapbetweenstrengthstargetedbytherelativelybriefSEARSandexistingsocial-emotionalcurriculaprovideanimpetustobetterunderstandhowtheskillsthereinpredictpositiveexperience.Acomprehensivesearchofnumerousscholarlydatabasesandforwardcitationsfromseminalstrengths-basedarticlesdidnotyieldasingleinvestigationoftherelationshipbetweenresponsibilityandlifesatisfaction.Theabilityofstrengthstopredictlifesatisfactionhasbeenresearchedtotherelativeexclusionofotherpositiveexperienceoutcomes(i.e.,hopeandgratitude),thusexaminingtheseoutcomesinrelationtostrengthsisalsoimportant.Finally,althoughmanyofthesestrengthshavebeenevaluatedasincreasingpositiveoutcomes,informationislimitedregardingtheextenttowhichtheymayprotectagainstnegativeoutcomes.PeerVictimization.AsstatedinthereviewofresilienceliteraturebyZolkoskiandBullock(2012),resiliencetraitsprotectindividualsfromnegativeoutcomesassociatedwithrisk.Oneenvironmentalriskfacingstudentstodaypeervictimization,asbetween10-14%ofyouthintheU.S.reportbeingvictimizedbytheirpeers(Craigetal,2009;Rose,Espelage,Aragon,&Elliott,2011).Whilebullyingrefersbroadlytostudentscommittingactsofaggressionovertime,thetermvictimizationrefersbroadlytowhenchildrenareonthereceivingendofrepeatedactsofovertandrelationalaggression(Crick&Grotpeter,1995;Graham,2005).Overtvictimizationreferstoinstancesinwhichchildrenexperiencephysicalharmorverbalattacksfromanotherindividual,whilerelationalvictimizationinvolvesbeingexcludedfromsocialactivitiesorexperiencingattacksonone’sabilitytomakeormaintainfriendships(Crick&Grotpeter).Inthefollowingsection,bothovertandrelationalvictimizationwillbedescribedintermsofmeasurement,theiruniqueimpactonmentalhealth,andgapsintheliteraturepertainingtowell-beingandresilience.35 AppendixII中文译文第二章文献综述积极心理学范式概述由马丁•塞里格曼和米哈里•奇克森特米海伊开创的积极心理学形成于1997年，此学派的研究视野不再是如何治疗心理疾病，而是那些使人们生活变得美好的心理机制（林利，约瑟夫，哈灵顿，&伍德，2006）。尽管幸福等人生积极面研究在其他心理学运动（如二十世纪五十年代的人本主义心理学；克里斯蒂安松，2012）中早有涉及，但积极心理学将所有这些研究统一了起来。塞里格曼（2000）将积极心理学的主要观点总结为三个方面：积极体验（如积极心理状态）、人格特质（如性格优势）和社会环境。这几个概念将在下文中进行详述。自十多年前积极心理学发轫以来，多以成人为研究对象，较少涉及未成年人；。因此，本文献综述主要以成人积极心理学研究文献为主。不过，最近也兴起了一些针对未成年人的积极心理学研究（如希布纳，1991；麦卡洛，埃蒙斯，&曾，2002；索尔多&谢弗，2008），所以，本文献综述也会涉及一些已有的未成年人积极心理学文献。一，积极体验。积极心理学的第一方面——积极体验，是指使人们在活动中产生的使人愉快的情绪状态，包括乐观、好奇、感恩、生活满意和希望。而由于后三种体验（如感激、生活满意和希望）反映了一个人过去、现在、将来的种种积极情感，因此为衡量个人幸福感的关键因素。研究发现，积极体验不仅本身（即，就结果而言）令人愉快，其产生的愉快情绪也会带来大量益处（柳博米尔斯基，金，&迪娜，2005）。例如，关于快乐情绪与创造性解决问题，研究发现，快乐情绪者往往比中性或消极情绪者解决问题时更高效、更具创意、方法更多样（弗雷德里克森，2001）。为了将积极心理学和心理健康的现行定义相整合，研究者提出“完全心理健康”的概念，并将其定义为具有积极体验且无精神病理现象（格林斯蓬&沙克洛夫斯克，2001；凯斯，2005；苏尔多&谢弗，2008）。这个概念被称为心理健康“双因素模型”，为促进积极心理学研究与心理健康实践相结合提供了新思路。该模型尤其适用于分析和研究学生的表现，。通过这个模型，研究人员发现，完全心理健康的学生往往比那些没有心理问题的学生在学术上更为成功（苏尔多&谢弗，2008）。积极体验主要的研究指标包括：生活满意度高、积极情绪高、负面情绪低。36 在双因素模型中，心理健康的两大因素（主观幸福感和心理障碍）可以组合成四种心理状态：完全心理健康（高主观幸福感和低心理障碍），心理弱势（低主观幸福感和低心理障碍）、有病理症候但自我满足（高主观幸福感和高心理障碍）、身心失调（低主观幸福感和高心理障碍；苏尔多&谢弗，2008）。早期青少年研究表明，完全心理健康群体身体最为健康，学术成就最高，社会功能最强，而心理弱势群体学术自我概念、动机水平较低，且不及完全心理健康群体重视学校教育（苏尔多&谢弗）。这两组均无心理障碍（过去，心理障碍是鉴别一个人是否有精神疾患的唯一标准）的学生之间的差异，证明了积极情感体验（心理障碍除外）指标的探索运用对于最全面理解青少年心理健康是合理的。第二，积极性格特质。积极性格特质作为积极心理学的第二大支柱，可以增加人际交往和职业生涯成功（塞里格曼，2000）的概率。积极性格特质也被概念化为“性格优势”（此次研究中使用的术语），可以降低心理创伤或消极调整（侵犯、抑郁等）的可能性，并同时增加积极结果（如人际交往和学业上的成功等）的可能性（帕克&彼得森，2006）。帕克和彼得森认为积极心理学的第二大支柱扮演了最重要的角色，因为积极的人格特性能使人们得到积极的情感体验，同时构建由积极个体组成的积极社会团体。定义性格优势的方法有很多。行动价值（VIA）研究项目定义了24种普遍存在的重要特质，其在许多文化中被认为是有益的（彼得森，塞里格曼，2004）。具体来说，帕克和彼得森（2006）确定了6种普世品质，其中每种包含3至5种性格优势：智慧（即，创造力，好奇心，思想开放，热爱学习和透视），勇敢（即，诚实，勇气，毅力，热情），仁爱（即，善良，爱，和社交智力），正义（即，公平，领导能力和团队精神），节制（即，宽恕，谦虚，谨慎和自控力）和超越性（即，审美，感恩，希望，幽默和灵性）。在不同生命阶段，各性格优势的重要性亦不同。例如，在成年期，感恩和好奇心是产生健康心理的关键因素，而在青春期社交智力却更为重要（帕克和彼得森）。在学校，那些促进亲社会行为和营造成功学习环境的性格优势往往受到高度重视。为了评估学生在学校的个人优势，研究者们试图做了如下评估：那些带来个人成就感的情感、行为能力，技能和特质，有助于处理好和家人、同伴及其他成年人间的关系；同时，也可提高应对逆境和抗击压力的能力；此外，还可促进个人及学术发展。（爱泼斯坦&夏尔马，1998，第3页）为了达到这个目的，梅里尔，科恩，汤姆（2011）创立了社会情感有利条件和弹性等级37 量表(SEARS)，用来评估代表个人优势的四个不同概念：责任心，自我调节能力，社交能力和移情能力。其中自我调节能力，与VIA优势分类不谋而合。且SEARS中的责任心与VIA中的审慎（定义为“做选择时小心慎重”，帕克和彼得森，2006，第67页）概念高度重合，而移情与社交能力则同时与VIA中的社交智力（即，意识到自我和他人动机和感情；帕克和彼得森）概念重合。VIA优势分类方法使研究者能够对学生的优势进行更为全面的剖析，而SEARS评价量表则意在精选一些技能，并通过学校开办的社交情感课程（，坚强的孩子；梅里尔，卡瑞扎尔斯，费尔伯恩，居尔德纳和德兰，2007a）有效传授给学生，从而成为一种学生积极心理研究的实用评价手段。此外，由于SEARS模式只专注于研究4项优势（而非24项），意味着需要评估的指标更少，适用于大规模学生评估。为了加强学生的相关心理能力而开设的预防和干预课程（社会情感课程）改善了学生们的学习态度、行为和表现（奇恩，维斯伯格，王和瓦尔贝里，2004）。学习态度的改善包括学习动机、集体感的增强和处事能力的提升。学生行为的改善包括课堂积极性更高及亲社会行为更为突出，且旷课和早退现象明显减少。学生表现的改善则体现在各学科学业成绩和高层次思维能力的明显提高。该结果表明，学生的积极行为与其积极性格特质密切相关。同时也表明积极性格特质能通过社会情感学习(SEL)课程等方式有效干预不良行为的发生。积极体验和积极性格特质在概念上有重合之处。例如，希望和感恩，在文献综述中同时将其从积极体验和性格优势的角度进行了探讨。当积极心理概念具有“类状态特征”，或适时发生在某一特定时刻，则被认为是积极体验（帕克和彼得森，2006）。例如，一个即将前往游乐园的孩子开始可能满怀希望，但当得知最喜欢的游乐场停业时，就不那么期待了。然而，始终充满希望的孩子则会认为以后还有机会去自己喜欢的游乐场。同理，亲戚给了孩子很多钱，孩子可能只会暂时心存感激，然而一个始终怀有感恩之心的孩子，哪怕是给他一个微小的手势，也可能获得持久的快乐（麦卡洛，埃蒙斯和曾，2002）。尽管二者概念上有区别，有关情绪（感恩和希望）的性格优势会引起持久的积极体验并能适应外界变化（例如，埃蒙斯和麦卡洛，2003；魏莱，阿尔诺，罗森和马斯卡罗，2003），从而使之成为合适的干预目标。鉴于当前研究的目的，具有类特质的感恩和希望，由于将作为结果进行评估，被称为积极体验。积极社会环境。积极心理学的第三大支柱——积极社会环境高度强调社会环境对其内部个体的影响（塞里格曼，2000）。若将该社会环境设定为学校环境，便存在一些促进和阻碍积极体验形成的潜在因素。来自老师和同伴的关爱，同学彼此间的信任，以及将学校视为心灵港湾的观念，均与学生的学习生活满意度密切相关，并有助于其积极调适（贝克和莫平，38 2009）。特别是，良好的同伴关系构成了整个学校积极氛围的重要因素（温策尔，贝克和罗素，2006）。较难被同伴所接受的孩子通常会比受欢迎的孩子遭受更多学习上的失败（温策尔，2005）。此外，不受欢迎的孩子，其行为常带有攻击性和退缩性，而受欢迎的孩子则更加遵规守纪并乐于与人交往（温策尔，2005）。积极心理学的第三大支柱不仅强调社会问题及相关负面结果，同时也强调积极社会环境的发展。例如，在青春期中期，和同伴、父母关系融洽且社交取向强烈，通常预示着后续人生的健康发展（表现为社交能力，社会满意度，对他人或权威的信任和公民参与）（奥康纳，2011）。这方面的研究反映了以一个更为积极的心理步入社会环境；而性格优势和积极体验对负面社会环境的改善程度正是积极心理学研究的重要内容。因此，在积极心理学视角下的社会环境中，老师和学生所能创造出的环境安全（低同伴侵害率）程度可能会是一个有趣的概念。积极心理学的三大支柱主要是作为独立成分进行研究（塞里格曼，2000），然而积极体验、性格特质二者与社会环境之间却有很大程度的交互作用。例如，社交能力（性格优势的一种）常依赖于社会环境，因为在某种情境下可行的社交技能在另种情境下可能行不通（温策尔，贝克和罗素，2006）。此外，对社会帮助（积极社会环境）的感知能保护（消极社会环境）学生免受不良体验如抑郁（谷川，弗隆，菲力克斯和夏基，2011）的侵害。本研究与帕克和彼得森（2006）的观点有一致之处：性格优势引导人们获得积极体验，并有助于形成积极社会群体，因此成为影响这两大支柱最大的变量。因此，该研究旨在评估即使在不利的社会环境（即，同伴侵害）中，特定的积极性格优势对积极体验影响的程度。在第一大支柱中，研究计划将评估学生们的感恩度、生活满意度和希望值。第二大支柱中，将评估移情、责任感、自我调适能力和社交能力等指标。最后在第三大支柱——社会环境中，将评估欺辱和侵害行为研究，因为其与心理健康有关。当前研究虽并未调查积极社会环境因素，如老师的高度支持，却试图研究各社会环境（包括不利环境，即，同伴侵害）下性格优势和积极心理状态之间的关系。下文将对积极心理学的三大支柱与当前研究间的联系进行更全面的阐述，各支柱中的有关概念（即，感恩度，生活满意度和希望值）概念的定义、测定、与适应性间的关系，及通过策略改善概念指标的相关依据等也会进行介绍。此外，文献中的各观点分歧也会涉及；这些综述内容会为本研究提供理论背景。积极心理状态39 感恩。感恩是源于对过去经历的满意而产生的一种积极体验，包括两部分：认识到自己体验了满意事件并将这一积极体验归于外源（维纳，1985）。尽管感恩可以作为一种性格特质存在（帕克和彼得森，2006），但从积极体验的状态属性来看，感恩通常被定义为由积极事件引起的短暂的认知和情感状态。测量感恩度。儿童和青少年会把感恩和礼貌相混淆（博诺和弗罗，2006）；但目前也一些可利用的评估手段能有效测定青少年的状态或特质感恩。例如，佛罗等人（2011）确认感恩问卷调查表（GQ-6；为成人开发的一种测量方式）的单维因素结构符合青少年人群（10-19岁）特点。GQ-6一般用于测试特质感恩度，且是公开发表研究中使用频率最高的一种感恩评估方式。状态感恩度则通过以下方式评估：让学生选择某些情感等级词汇（感激，感恩等）来表达对过去经历的体会，这些词汇按李克特量表划分等级，如感恩程度检核表（麦卡洛，埃蒙斯和曾，2002）。相关性。在成人样本中，状态感恩度和幸福、自豪、希望及满足成正相关（傲威瓦力，莫维尔德，和德舒伊特，2005），而和轻蔑、嫉妒及怨恨成负相关（斯奇马克和瑞赞泽恩，1997）。在青少年人群中，感恩度和生活满意度、积极情感、乐观及社会支持相关（弗洛等，2009）。此外，实验研究表明，激发感恩情绪可以让人更加积极乐观，增加亲社会行为概率（如帮助困难人群)，提高身体健康水平（埃蒙斯和麦卡洛，2003）。这样，感恩同时也改善了情绪和人际关系（博诺和弗洛，2006）。尽管该研究大多以成年人为实施对象，但一些有关青少年的研究表明感恩和其他积极功能指标亦有重大联系，如感知的社会支持和乐观（帕克和彼得森，2006），学业成就和社交动机（弗洛，埃蒙斯，卡德，博诺和威尔逊，2011）研究发现，感恩预示着随着时间的推移，生活满意度越来越高（吉勒姆等，2011）。此外，实验研究表明，青少年主观幸福的情感指标和感恩之间亦可能存在因果关系（弗洛，卡什丹，额金科斯基和米勒，2009）。具体而言，通过信件表达感恩的青少年随后会产生更多的感激之情（据GAC评估所示）和积极情绪。世界上的所有文化都很注重感恩的表达（埃蒙斯和克伦普尔，2000）。根据麦卡洛、克伯屈、埃蒙斯和拉森（2001），当一个人表达感恩时，会发生三大“道德”事件：受惠者认为该恩惠有价值（道德晴雨表）；受惠者激励着施惠者慷慨行为的再次发生（道德增强剂）；施惠者促使受惠者未来亲社会行为的发生（道德动机）。由于感恩有助于施惠者（曾，2006；曾，2007）、受惠者（克拉克，1975）甚至局外人（巴特利特和德斯特诺，2006）获得积极社会体验，因此可能成为某些环境（如校园等封闭社交圈）下的重要产物。促进感恩。感恩通常是由于接受了某种有价值的事物而产生的一种状态（麦卡洛等，40 2001）。然而，即使不是生长在特殊环境下的孩子，也可以通过多种方式来增加感恩度。正如前文所述，青少年感恩度可以直接通过一些感恩行为来得到提升，如写感恩信，此方法对于之前经历较少积极情感的孩子来说更有效（弗洛，卡什丹，奥兹母和米勒，2009）。另一个增加感恩度的有效方式是鼓励青少年列举出他们生活中的积极事项（弗洛，塞菲克，埃蒙斯，2008）。鉴于感恩度容易受干涉而发生变化，并常和各种利益相关联，因此了解其是如何受性格优势和社会环境所影响十分重要。生活满意度。生活满意度是指个体基于自身设定的重要标准对生活质量做出的主观评价（帕沃特和迪那，1993）。与高积极情感和低消极情感（通常反映一个人当前活动的享受程度的暂时性情绪）不同的是，生活满意度还包含对是否达到优质生活标准的认知评价(苏澳多,希伯纳,弗里德里希和吉尔曼,2006)。生活满意度的测量。自我报告工具用来评估个人生活各方面的满意度，如工作、家庭或学习；其他评估手段则用于评估整体满意度，或总体生活满意度（苏奥多等，2006）。尽管目前有不少评估各生活领域满意度的方式(见文献综述普罗克特,林利和莫尔特比,2008)，然而当前研究着眼于对整体满意度的评估，因此在这一节只讨论整体评估法。“学生生活满意度量表”(SLSS;希伯纳,1991)用于评估8至18岁之间青少年的生活满意度。研究表明，青少年普遍认可其中七项内容，如“我的生活比大部分孩子都好。”。另一种测量整体生活满意度的方式为“生活满意度量表”(SWLS;迪耶内,埃蒙斯,拉森和格林芬,1985)，该量表是针对成年人群而创，但经常用于青少年研究。SWLS包括5项指标（如，若生命可以重来，我将改变一切），分别划分为1（极不同意）-7（非常同意）个等级。对成人的频繁研究使迪那断言，依据SWLS所测的个人总分，生活满意度可以划分为七个层次：极为不满（5-9分）、不满意（10-14）、不太满意（15-19）、中立（20)、勉强满意（21-25）、满意（26-30)和非常满意（31-35）。生活满意度与学生行为的相关性研究。整体生活满意度通常由SLSS或SWLS测得，且和青少年的一系列最佳状态有关，包括高自我效能感（希布纳，吉尔曼和劳克林，1999；内文，凯尔，谢尔文，杜利和布瑞顿，2005），乐观（埃克斯奇，杜兰，和雷伊，2007），内外控倾向（吉尔曼和希布纳，2006），和外向性（希文，1989）。此外，生活满意度高也会伴随更多的学业成就（吉尔曼和希布纳），虽然二者并无必然联系。生活满意度高的学生在学校不太可能出现问题行为（瓦鲁瓦，帕克斯顿，朱利格和希布纳，2006），对健康缺乏感知，表现不健康行为，或因健康问题而受到活动限制（匹克，2006；索多和谢弗，2008；朱利格，瓦鲁瓦，希布纳和允，2005）。在社会调控方面，高生活满意度的学生更能感知来自儿童和41 成人的支持（吉尔曼和希伯纳，2006；索多和希伯纳，2006），更能产生对学校的依恋感（吉尔曼，2001），并和同伴关系融洽（德夫和希伯纳，1994），且较少遭受同伴侵害（马丁和希伯纳，2007）。提升生活满意度。文献综述中提到两种提高生活满意度的方式（鲁波莫斯基，谢尔顿，司开德，2005）：间接和直接方式。间接提升生活满意度可以通过改善学生生活环境状况来实现（如，鼓励参加课外活动，像乐队或运动之类），或增加社会互动及他人支持（索多，希伯纳，萨维奇和萨基，2011）。而为了直接提高生活满意度，心理健康专家可以尝试提高孩子的相关技能或改善其行为。研究人员发现，对青少年进行一定干预可以帮助提升青少年生活满意度（索多，萨维奇和梅塞，新闻报道），尽管目前直接法几乎只研究成人（法雷尔，瓦鲁瓦和梅耶，2003；金，2001）。希望。本研究的最后一项积极体验为希望。辛德及其同事（1991）将其定义为“……基于交互作用中产生的对成功（a)激励(目标导向动力）和（b)途径（目标实践计划）思考的一种积极动机状态”（斯奈德，欧文和安德森，1991,287页）。这一开创性的定义指明了希望的三个主要成分，分别为，（充满希望的人）有明确的目标（目标），追求目标的意志和精力（激励）及实践目标的计划（途径）。充满希望的人主要有两类目标：力求成功和避免失败（斯奈德，2002）。如此一来，充满希望的学生可能具备某种动机或计划，以保证考试成功或避免和恋人分手。和生活满意度较为相似的是，斯奈德定义的希望并非一种情感状态或特质，而是思想水平的反应。也就是说，希望有助于产生积极情感，但希望本身并不包含积极状态（斯奈德）。仅当目标成功实现时，希望才传达出一种积极情感状态。反之，当遭遇失败时，便会产生消极情感状态（斯奈德等，1996)。高水平希望会促使人们为实现目标做更多尝试，从而增加成功的概率，获得更多积极情感（斯奈德等，1999)。此外，高水平希望会带来积极认知体验。希望值的测量。测量儿童希望值最常用的方式为儿童希望量表（CHS；斯奈德等，1997）。CHS包含六项测量激励思考和路径思考的指标，并常用于儿童和青少年（包括高中生）研究。此外，为成人创制的希望量表也可用于青少年（斯奈德，1991）。希望量表包含12项指标，并平均分为3组，以测试激励（如，我积极追求我的目标），途径（如，我可以想出多种解决问题的办法），和任意信息（如，干扰问题）。希望值与学生行为相关性研究。对于低收入家庭的青少年，路径思考和大量适应性应对策略有关，包括问题解决、规划和积极思考（乐施，段嘎多，沃恩，奥尔德里奇和维多拉斯，2010）。希望的保护性在一项研究结果中得到了阐释，该研究涉及132名来自低收入家庭的42 五年级学生（塞蒂诺，艾利亚斯，凯莉和朱，2010）。具体研究结果包括：一、亲身经历或目睹过暴力的学生自我概念水平较低；二、希望值高的学生（由CHS测量所得）自我概念水平较高；三、希望值高的学生即使遭受过校园暴力或受其影响，其自我概念也不会低于希望值低的同伴（塞蒂诺，艾利亚斯，凯莉和朱）。此外，研究发现，希望值高的高中生生活满意度也会渐渐提升。提升希望值。教青少年如何创建可实现目标（如，逐步提升式小目标而非大目标）及如何对同一问题创建多种解决方案（这样一种方案的失败并不妨碍整体成功）可提升其路径思维（斯奈德等人，2001）。激励水平可以通过以下方式得到有效提升：确保学生选择自己认为重要的目标（如，允许学生自己而非成人帮其设立目标），将未来目标建立在目前的表现上，鼓励积极自我对话，并对过去成功进行反思（斯奈德等）。最近一项研究表明，对早期青少年学生的希望集中干预是很有效的。感恩，生活满意度和希望之间的关系。尽管感恩和希望为积极心理结果，其也可发展为性格优势（帕克和彼得森，2006）。如此一来，感恩和希望均和生活满意度相关（帕克，彼得森和塞里格曼，2004），且能预测往后的生活满意度（吉尔曼等，2011；帕克和彼得森，2008）。因此，在对这三大积极结果（在当前研究中已证实）的相关假设中，除了其他因素，还有必要考虑到希望和感恩也会反过来改变生活满意度。文献空缺。虽然对遭受暴力的青少年研究表明希望特质（一种性格优势）可以作为补偿弹性系数，但希望作为一种状态结果，究竟如何免受不利事件（即，同伴侵害）影响或得到其他性格优势（如，社交能力）的促进仍不得而知。此外，虽然VIA列举的大量性格优势均和生活满意度相关（如，吉尔曼，2011；卡什丹和斯特格，2007），但由学校课程指定的性格优势是否存在此种关联仍为未知。而且，这些概念间的相互关系也不太明了。一些研究结果表明，感恩（弗洛等，2009）和希望（贝利，英格，弗里斯和斯奈德，2007）均可增加积极情感，而其他研究则推测移情可能会影响感恩度（博诺和麦卡洛，2006）。对这些体验关系的深入理解将有助于进一步理解如何实现积极心理健康。性格优势：有利性格条件和心理弹性该领域文献发展有待完善，部分可能由于最近十年很少采用优势的评估（李，弗朗，特纳，与哈拉里，2001），但针对某些特定性格的干预性研究还是为此研究议题提供了一些信息，也为性格优势与青少年和成年人行为的相关性提供了一些线索。在对优势和心理弹性进行简要定义后，我将对SEARS量表中的每一个概念的定义和重要性进行阐述。SEARS作为一43 种新的测量工具，由于其中的概念研究很少涉及健康，因此还会探讨用其他优势测量工具测量生活满意度的研究。有利性格条件。有利性格条件指某种资质促进积极状态发生的能力。在过去十年中，利用VIA优势评估对成人做了大量研究。这些研究表明，超验（如希望）、节制（如自我调节）和智力（如思想开放；吉尔曼等，2011）范畴下的性格优势预示着生活满意和幸福。研究还发现生活满意度和好奇心（卡什丹和斯蒂格，2007）间的联系，及其与爱、希望和热情间的关系（彼得森，鲁赫，比尔曼，帕克和塞里格曼，2007）。在对当前重点研究的有利条件和弹性定义后，将验证有利条件和青少年心理状态的关系。心理弹性。增加积极特质固然十分重要，但同时令研究人员感兴趣的是，社交情感技能的提升能否使儿童避免产生负面情绪（哈拉切尔和梅里尔，2012）。心理弹性是指处于不利环境下仍能表现良好的能力，为医药领域长期研究的一个概念，直到20世纪70年代才出现在行为科学中（马斯汀，2007）。为了体现心理弹性，必须将个人置于威胁环境中，并给予挑战，然后通过挫折复原力对其进行克服（马斯汀等，1991）。因此，若性格优势要充当挫折复原力，其必须使人避开情非所愿的结果（如，负面情感或生活满意度降低）。社交情感有利性格条件和心理弹性课程除了VIA-青少年定义的性格优势，其他研究还验证了校本课程的社交情感课程目标。社交情感课程被定义为以提升学生某些能力{包括：理解和调节自身情绪，做出负责任的决定，紧急情况处理，建立有意义关系，及领会和理解他人感受【学业、社交和情感学习协作（CASEL），2008】等的能力}为导向的一组教学实践。同时，也意在通过培养儿童的心理弹性和适应性以防止负面结果的发生（格林伯格等人，2003）。虽然评估社交情感课程并非本文目的所在，但由于其中某一具体课程针对性格优势的干预作用提供了系统的方法，因此对该话题的简要讨论十分重要。为了提高儿童和青少年的性格优势，迈乐及其同事为各年龄阶段的孩子开发了一系列社交情感课程——“坚强的孩子”（迈乐，卡瑞扎尔，费尔伯恩，居尔德纳和特朗，2007a，2007b，2007c；迈乐，帕里西，和惠特科姆，2007）。为了测量“坚强的孩子”这门课程中所针对的技能，迈乐（2008）和科恩（2011）进行了要素分析以确定如何组合积极个人特质来进行心理评估。除去无关和重复项目后，剩下四大要素：社交能力，自我调节能力，责任感和移情（科恩，2011；迈乐，2008）。越来越多的证据表明，社交情感课程中所教授的特定技能（如，责任感）的确很有价值，因为其增加了学会的社交情感知识和应对策略（迈乐等，2008；马44 钱特等，2010），学业成绩（艾利亚斯，2004；格林伯格等，2003），和亲社会行为（卡尔德雷拉，克里斯滕森，克雷默，和克隆米勒，2009）。有关研究证明，“坚强的孩子”这门课程能提升SEARS（哈拉彻尔和迈乐，2010）评估的各项技能。作为韧性要素，社交情感课程已成功减少了内化行为（卡尔德雷拉等，2009；马钱特等，2010）。某些研究也表明，社交情感课程能显著改善问题行为（杜尔拉克，维斯伯格，蒂姆尼斯基，泰勒和舍林格，2010）。这些课程能影响SEARS中针对的每一种技能，即意味着这四大性格优势是进行干预的可行方式，因此对四者相关利益的理解尤为重要。社交能力。社交能力指的是一套重要而复杂的技能组合，包括三大分块，即：适应性行为（即，该年龄阶段所期望的独立行为能力；格罗斯曼，1983），社交技能（即，引起理想社交结果的社交行为；迈乐，2007），和同伴关系（即，一个人被同伴所接纳的程度；迈乐，2007）。SEARS所测量的社交能力主要集中于该定义中的后两点。此外，虽然适应性行为的许多方面涉及社交能力，但该词也可指该研究范围之外、与社交能力无关的一系列广泛特征（如，正确使用勺子或吸管；斯巴洛，西克切提和巴拉，1989）。在同伴关系的处理中，具备一些社交技能很有必要。尽管同伴关系的构建在于结果而非行为，但一个社交技能丰富却不被同伴所接受的人并不一定有很强的社交能力，因此在确定个人社交能力时应仔细考虑（迈乐等，2007）。因此，在确定社交技能是否充分发展以获取社会资源时，就有必要同时测量一下同伴关系。在SEARS中，测量社交技能的各项例子包括“我赞扬他人”且“别人说话时我是一个很好的倾听者”，而测量同伴关系则涉及如“别人喜欢我”（迈乐，科恩，和汤姆，2011）。与心理健康的关系。伯特，奥布拉多维奇，朗，和马斯汀（2008）引用了大量关于心理健康状况不佳对社交能力影响的例子（欣肖，1992；马斯汀等，2005；帕特森，雷德和狄世昂，1992）。然而，社交能力也可能影响心理健康（如，科尔，马丁，鲍尔斯，和特鲁格里奥，1996），或者社交能力和心理健康同时受第三变量影响，如经济状况（伯特等，2008）。鉴于同伴排挤将可能导致内化问题（希美尔，鲁宾，罗登和勒马尔，1990），伯特等人试图用结构方程模式（SEM）澄清心理健康和社交能力间的关系。在他们的研究中，主要通过对同伴、本人及父母的访谈和修改后的班级戏剧量表——同伴评估程序以了解同伴接纳情况，从而测量社交能力（格斯特等，2006）。内化和外化行为则通过儿童行为清单来测量（CBCL；阿肯巴特和埃德尔布鲁克，1983）。为了测量第三变量对社交能力或精神障碍影响的可能性，作者也测量了父母教育质量，智商，和SES。在四个年龄段，花费近20年时间测量了一个极具代表性的样本（8-12岁）。但鉴于成人研究不45 在此研究范围内，在此只讨论前两个年龄段（即，青少年期和青年期）的结果分析。以简单测量每个变量的的简约模型开始，因其可以预测未来年龄段的相应行为（如，年龄段一的外在行为可以预示年龄段2的外在行为），作者先后增加了一些参数（如，年龄段1的社交能力预示年龄段2的内化行为），直到他们确定一个优越拟合模型。优越模型显示社交能力和内化或外化问题间基线呈负相关。此外，童年期的社交能力强预示着青少年期内化问题少。尽管该模型表明，社交能力会影响精神障碍的发生，类似模型并未采用积极体验来测试，这将符合通过双重因素模型（同时考虑主观幸福感和精神障碍）全面检测精神健康的要求。自我调节。尽管这又是一个复杂且被大量研究的概念，但在本研究中（如，“面对问题和争论，我很淡定”SEARS；迈乐，科恩和汤姆，2010），自我调节最恰当的定义可以表述为“努力控制”（刘，2012）。因此，在此只会对有关这一相对行为定义的研究进行回顾。刘总结到，通常老师和同伴认为，那些能够抑制冲动行为或不良反应的孩子比直接表现冲动行为的孩子更为积极乐观（布莱尔，邓罕，克查诺夫，和惠普尔，2004；刘，艾森伯格和莱泽尔，2004；奥尔森，克尔，洛佩兹，&萨米尔夫，威尔曼，2005）。此外，能够控制自己行为的孩子往往学业上更为成功（瓦里安特，勒莫里-扎尔方特，斯旺森和莱泽尔，2008）。自我调节不仅能带来社交及学业方面的益处，还可能与心理健康有关。自我调节与心理健康的关系。自我调节可以使处于不稳定家庭环境中的青少年，通过努力控制的方式避免外化问题的发生（巴克，奥迈尔，费尔哈斯特，和奥德汉高，2010）。此外，在人格评估中，那些称自己经历过恐惧和挫折但同时有较强自我控制力的儿童，后续并没有遭受内化或外化问题（奥德汉高，哈特曼，费迪南，费尔哈斯特，和奥梅尔，2007），这一事实表明自我调节能力（如，争论时保持镇定，三思而后行）可能会减少心理健康问题。VIA测量研究发现，具有自我调节能力的儿童，通常预示着其青少年阶段（大概两年多的时间，即9-10年级）生活满意（吉尔曼等，2011）。责任感。目前对“责任感”还没有一个普遍定义；而CASEL将其定义为“做决定时应基于对道德标准、安全问题、社会规范、尊重他人及各行为结果的考虑；将决策技巧应用于学习和社交情境；有助于其所在学校和社区的安定和谐”（哈格蒂，埃尔金，和伍俐，2011）。由于该定义和SEARS量表中的项目相对兼容（如，“我擅长做决定”和“我以有效方式思考问题“；迈乐，科恩，和汤姆，2010），因此为目前研究首选。责任感与心理健康的关系。就某些类型责任（即，对非暴力方式侵害——须承担一定情境和社会问题解决的个人责任的反应）的对早期青少年的干预已成功减少了违纪行为（法瑞尔，迈耶，和怀特，2001），减少了同伴挑衅和来自同伴吸毒的压力（法瑞尔，瓦鲁瓦和迈46 耶，2002），且降低了暴力行为的下线（法瑞尔，迈耶，沙利文和龚,2003)。尽管这些效果尚未得到系统评估,但又开发了一门课程来提升青少年责任感和心理授权，以减少遭受同伴侵害（威斯曼2009）。迄今为止尚未明确研究心理健康的积极指标和对高度责任感总体趋向的关系。研究发现，VIA中谨慎这一概念和责任感较为相似，也预示着青少年在9-10年级的两年多中生活满意度较高（吉尔曼等，2011）。移情。心理学研究中对该词的长期使用使该词的定义成为一大挑战（雷蒙德，1989）。然而，基于本次研究的目的，对移情最合适的定义包括两层含义：认知和情感移情（戴维斯，1994；杜安和伊尔，1996）。认知移情指一种以他人角度看问题的能力，而情绪移情则是指对他人情绪感受的程度。SEARS-A中的项目可以用来测量认知移情（如，“我擅长理解他人的观点”），而非情绪或情感移情。和心理健康的关系。有关青少年研究表明，提高共情可以改善人际功能（斯蒂芬和芬莉，1999）。此外，拉萨路认为共情是感恩必不可少的成分（1994),并且共情和顺应社会特质呈正相关，如建立和维持友谊（利特瓦克-米勒等，1997）。至于和心理障碍的关系，低水平共情的青少年会发生外化行为（米勒和艾森伯格，1988），包括侵害（乔立夫和法林顿，2007），破坏性行为障碍（德韦德，万博克斯特尔和马蒂斯，2012），和冷酷无情的特质（德韦德等；佛瑞科狄更斯，2006）。研究发现，移情水平较高的青少年较少出现内化问题，且移情会缓解同伴不良关系与内化或外化行为的关系（格里森，延森-坎贝尔和伊克斯，2009）。目前尚未有研究评估青少年移情和生活满意度间的关系；然而，研究发现，具有高认知共情的老年人护理人员称抑郁症状较少且生活满意度高（李，布伦南，和达利，2001）。尽管此研究主要针对移情可能对心理产生的好处，最近对“移情烦恼”的研究却表明，高水平移情者在面对社会关系压力时，可能会产生更多负面情绪（史密斯和露丝，2011)。也就是说，情绪（或情感）移情水平较高者看到他人痛苦时，那么即便他们并未涉事其中也可能产生痛苦之情。史密斯评估的是情绪共情，因此认知移情（正如SEARS-A量表所测）是否也有此类效果尚不清楚。然而，史密斯和露丝也发现，以社会的角度看问题——类似于认知移情，会增加“移情烦恼”发生的可能性。因此，有必要预测一下移情到底是充当危险因素还是保护因素。其他预示积极心理结果的有利因素或优势尽管很少有研究会把“坚强的孩子”及SEARS所评估的概念与积极体验相联系，但之前建立的一些优势测量模式——尤其是行动价值（VIA）分类体系中测量的优势（彼得森和塞47 里格曼，2004），和幸福有着不用程度的关联。总体而言，涉及亲近他人或建立友谊（如社交能力）的性格优势比自我导向型优势（如审美；帕克和彼得森，2008）更有助于社交成功。这种基于优势的研究大部分都是以成人为研究对象（帕克和彼得森，2006）；然而，该领域越来越多的研究开始涉及青少年。例如，弗洛，瑟菲克和埃蒙斯（2008）发现，基于超越的干预（如关注性情和灵性）会增加对生活和学习的满意度。在测量性格优势与个人幸福感关系的过程中，应进行全面综合测量，以免漏掉一些不常见的关联（达尔斯，2005），基于此目的，吉尔曼和其同事（2011）采用VIA测量法进行了穷尽性测量，以发现性格优势和心理健康间的可能存在的以往被忽视的关联。本次研究中，在2年多的时间里，149名九年级学生参加了四次行动调查量表测试（VIA-青少年；帕克和彼得森，2006）和SLSS中的“价值矫正”。在对主要成分进行分析后，他们将这些优势归为五大因素：超验（如性情），节制（例如，自律），知识（与学习有关的），他人导向性（如合作）和领导力（如劝告他人）。他们对性格优势和生活满意度进行了三次验证以将伪相关降至最低。此外，他们在混合模型ANCOVA中发现了预示着健康的优势，然后在控制其他优势的条件下，进行了反向阶梯式程序来检测预示生活满意的优势。运用逻辑回归分析来确定步骤1和步骤2中表明的优势是否可以解释后续生活满意度的变化。吉尔曼等发现，总体上，超验可以预测SWB，但SWB反过来却不可以预测超验。超验、节制、他人导向性和知识等优势都强有力地表明了未来生活满意度，但当控制其他优势变量时，只有超验预示着生活满意。这些结果不仅表明了青少年性格优势的预测效度，也表明了对一部分基于优势评估（例如，只有一个因素，如节制）的检验会使研究人员做出错误的结论。本文拟对SEARS测量法中的所有概念结构，从上述结论的视角，进行分析。实验证明，性格优势除了能预测生活满意度，还能通过基于优势的干预提高生活满意度。普罗克特及同事（2011）进行了一次名为“优势健身房”的干预研究，参与该实验的319名八年级和九年级学生，一部分上他们平时的课（对照组），另一部分除了正常上课之外，还参加针对VIA调查量表中所列的每种性格优势的强化课程或活动（实验组）。开始先通过SLSS评估法对生活满意度进行基线评估，几个月后干预终止时，再次评估生活满意度。结果发现，即使在对生活满意度设定了一个基本起评线之后，实验组学生生活满意度明显高于对照组的学生。就在校心理弹性而言，要考虑的一个重要风险因素就是同伴侵害。也就是说，遭受同伴侵害的孩子中，一些会表现出环境不适，而另一些则不会（朱沃楠和格雷汉姆，2001），这一现象让研究人员陷入疑难：什么差异可能防止孩子遭受负面影响呢？家庭和社区存在不少48 保护因素，例如，宗教信仰和家庭支持会减少受害青少年问题行为的发生（帕金斯&琼斯，2004）。然而，这些家庭和社区因素并不总能轻易影响学校人群，如此一来，对保护孩子的可训练技能研究就显得很有价值。SEARS量表所评估的一些技能（即，社交能力，自我调节能力，移情，和责任感）具有减少风险的巨大潜力。研究表明，自律可以减少酗酒家庭（皮尔森，德利马和凯莉，2011）孩子因父母酗酒所带来的影响（如，忽视自己的责任）。此外，违纪记录和处分显示，提高自律的干预可以减少问题行为（怀曼，克洛斯，布朗，余，涂和艾伯里，2010）。移情与侵害和犯罪行为呈负相关（乔立夫和法林顿，2004；米勒和艾森伯格，1988），并和宽恕呈正相关（麦卡洛等，1997）。尽管研究表明，某些性格优势在面对风险因素时仍可以减少负面结果（如，自我调节可以保护生长在酗酒家庭的孩子），其中许多变量仅作为有利条件进行了验证（如，移情的一般积极效应）。文献空缺。鉴于人际交往能力的优势性格及与心理健康的关联以及幸福的积极指标，还存在很大的延展性，所以，进一步研究优势性格与积极心理表现的关联十分必要。虽然VIA研究模型中的概念对测量生活满意度的有效性很明显，但涉及的测量项目太多（即240个项目），故不适于用来进行大规模学生调查（大多数学生接受评估时间有限）。SEARS的评估模型相对简单一些，且该模型中所涉及的测评概念与学校提供的社交情感课程所针对的性格优势有许多重合之处，故用SEARS评估模式能更方便地预测积极经验。笔者对大量相关学术数据库、以及对本领域扛鼎之作的前引文献资料进行了全面搜索，未查到任何涉及责任感与生活满意度关联的文章。此外，性格优势对生活满意度的预测能力研究与其他积极体验结果研究（即，希望和感恩）一直是分开进行的，所以将二者联系起来研究十分必要。最后，尽管其中许多研究证明性格优势能加强个体的积极心理体验，但这些优势能在多大程度上抵制负面心理体验仍然信息不足。同伴侵害。正如左科斯基和布尔洛克（2012）在心理弹性文献综述中所述，心理弹性特质可以使个体面临风险时免受负面影响。如今学生面临的一大风险便是同伴侵害，在美国有10-14%的青少年称自己受到同伴侵害（（克雷格等，2009；露丝，埃斯皮莱奇，阿拉贡，&埃利奥特，2011）。欺凌一般指学生长期做出侵害行为，而侵害这个术语则一般指孩子反复遭受公然或关系侵害的情境（克里克和格洛特皮特，1995；格拉哈姆，2005）。公然侵害是指其他个体对孩子的肉体伤害和言语攻击情况，而关系侵害则是指在社交活动中遭受排挤或交朋结友的能力受到贬损（克里克和格洛特皮特）。在下一章节，公然侵害和关系侵害，及其对心理健康的独特影响，还有文献中有关心理健康和心理弹性的空缺都将得到评估和阐述。49'