《世界历史百科全书》(第三纪元之社会和文化)翻译项目报告

'摘要本文是一篇翻译项目报告。项目原文是众多作者合著的《世界历史百科全书》(WorldHistoryEncyclopedia)中节选的95页至113页“社会与文化"一章(SocietyandCulture)。它描述了公元前1000年到公元300年世界众多国家的家庭状况，以及这一时期的主要社会阶级和组织。本报告分成四个部分，第一部分为翻译项目的介绍，包括项目的来源、意义和结构。第二部分为原文的介绍，包括作者，版本和原文的主要内容。第三部分为报告的核心部分，首先指出翻译过程中的重难点问题，其次简述此次翻译报告的主要指导理论——奈达的功能对等理论，最后理论联系实际，分析翻译过程中的具体实例所用到的翻译技巧。第四部分总结了此次翻译实践得到的启示和教训，并列出了一些有待解决的问题。关键词：《世界历史百科全书》；功能对等理论；社会与文化 AbstractThispaperisatranslationreportonSocietyandCultureselectedfrompage95topage13ofWorldHistoryEncyclopedia，whichwascA)-authoredbyseveralwriters．Itdepictsfamiliesandsocialclassesofmanycountriesduring1000BCEto300BC．Thispaperconsistsoffourparts：thefirstpartistheintroductionofthistranslationreportincludingitsmeaningandstructure．Thesecondparttellsabouttheauthors，theeditionandthemaincontentofthesourcetext．Thethirdpartisthecoreonewhichpointsoutthemajorproblemsintranslation,introducesNida’SFunctionalEquivalenceTheorybrieflyandanalyzesthetranslationskillsusedintheexamples．Thefourthpartistheconclusionofthepaperwithresultsandunsolvedproblems．KeyWords：WorldHistoryEncyclopedia；FunctionalEquivalenceTheory；SocietyandCulture 目录摘要⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯iAbstract⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．ii目录⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．iii一、翻译项目背景⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯11．1项目来源⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．11-2项目意义⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．11．3项目结构⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．1二、关于原文⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．t．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯一22．1关于作者⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．22．2原文版本⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．22．3原文分析⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．2三、质量控制⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯33．1翻译重难点问题⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．33．2翻译理论与方法的选择与简述⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．33．3理论方法的运用与重难点问题的解决⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．43．3．1专有名词的翻译⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯43．3．2括号的处理⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯53．3．3句子的翻译⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯53．3．3．1直译与意译⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．63．3．3．2长旬的拆分⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．6四、总结⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯84．1翻译启示⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．84．2翻译教训⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．84．3待解决的问题⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．8参考文献⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．10附录1原文⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯11附录2译文⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯30致{射⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯：⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯49 一、翻译项目背景1．1项目来源本次翻译实践材料由安徽科技出版社提供，安徽大学外语学院2011级翻译硕士专业全体学生合作完成。该翻译项目的原文是《世界历史百科全书》(WorldHistoryEncyclopedia)中纪元三的若干部分(P59．P118)。由于篇幅原因，笔者节选了95页至113页《社会与文化》(SocietyandCulture)作为此次翻译项目报告的实践材料。1．2项目意义《世界历史百科全书》(肠棚HistoryEncyclopedia)是一套包罗万象的大型“参考书"，它比较系统全面地介绍了文化科学知识，人们可以根据自己的需求从中找到答案。百科全书的编撰十分严谨，它覆盖面广，语言简练，拥有权威性，所以它的翻译难度更大，需要译者知识面广，态度认真，在翻译的过程中遇到问题要反复推敲，容不得丝毫含糊。该翻译项目有助于加深大众对世界各个国家在公元前1000年至公元300年历史文化的了解，从而更进一步的认识整个世界历史，同时从具体的例子阐释了翻译理论与翻译实践相结合对我们具有指导意义，一定程度上提高了我们的翻译水平。1．3项目结构本翻译报告共分成四个部分：第一、翻译项目背景的介绍，其中包括项目的来源、意义和结构。第二、关于原文的介绍，其中包括原文作者、版本以及对原文内容的分析。第三、质量控制。该部分是报告的重点部分，通过指出翻译过程中存在的重难点问题，引出译文所采用的主要指导理论和技巧，最后将理论联系实际，举例说明具体翻译问题的解决。第四、总结。总结了此次翻译实践中得到的启示和教训，并提出了待解决的问题。 ‘世界历史百科全书》(第三纪元之社会与文化)翻译项目报告二、关于原文2．1关于作者此次翻译项目报告选取的原文由ABC．CLIO出版社出版，800多名作家共同编著而成。ABC．CLIO出版社成立于1953年。它专注于历史和社会科学研究领域，研究跨度从史前一直到当今社会，致力于为研究人员、学生、教师和图书馆员提供专业的研究资源，包括各种教育性和参考性读物。主编阿尔弗雷德·J·安德里亚(AlfredJAndrea)是佛蒙特州历史大学的名誉退休教授。出版的作品包括：《第四次十字军东征》和《人类记录：世界史来源》。笔者选取的部分主要作者凯文·M·麦克吉奥夫(Kevin必McGeough)是加拿大莱斯布里奇大学考古学副教授，是考古界的杰出代表。2．2原文版本《世界历史百科全书》(WorldHistoryEncyclopedia)是由ABC-CLIO出版社于2011年4月出版的，分21卷，共7743页。本报告选取的是“社会与文化"这一章作为翻译报告材料。2．3原文分析《世界历史百科全书》(WorldHistoryEncyclopedia)是一套由众多作者参与编撰的专业工具书，内容涵盖了社会，经济，文化等各个方面，全书分成九个纪元叙述了不同时期不同地区的重大历史。笔者翻译的部分节取第三纪元公元前1000年至公元300年这一时期的社会与文化，原文前一部分叙述了这一时期不同国家的家庭状况，其中分别详细地描述了古希腊，古罗马，中国周汉时期以及早期基督教家庭生活，后一部分主要介绍了当时的社会阶层，并分别细述了古希腊，伊特鲁里亚，古罗马，古印度和早期基督社会和组织。2 三、质量控制3．1翻译重难点问题在本次翻译项目的翻译过程中，主要存在如下重难点：百科全书是一种用简明方式介绍各个门类知识的工具书，因此它的翻译涉及到如何把译文从英语百科全书语体转化为相应的中文语体，以获取中文语体效果。笔者是初次参与此类翻译，由于经验有限，翻译的过程并不如想象中顺利，笔者在此期间遇到了一些重点和难点问题。本次项目原文主要描述了各个国家不同时期的历史，内容包罗万象。这类历史资料文献，无论从措辞、结构及行文方式上都有自己的语言风格和特色，原文中出现许多结构复杂的旬式，．有时往往理解有误，语句冗长，需要译者去仔细分析，找出主体成分，再加以整理。有些句式看似简练，逻辑性强，信息量大，更加需要译者理解透彻。文中涉及到的词汇和英语语法很多，译者要善用翻译技巧和工具去尽力还原作者本意。在搜寻作者资料方面，遗憾的是，所得甚少。此外还有一些专有名词难以查到，或是存在不同译法，这也需要译者耐心比较。所以在翻译的过程中，不仅要知识面广，更要有严谨的翻译态度。要多看书，多收集资料，尽可能减少译文中出现的错误。3．2翻译理论与方法的选择与简述在翻译此次项目之前，笔者通读了原文资料，发现该翻译原文里含有大量的长句，这给笔者的翻译过程造成了一定程度上的困难，因此笔者在动手翻译之前查找资料，详细地了解了美国著名翻译理论家尤金·奈达(Eugene．A．Nida)的功能对等翻译理论(theTheoryofFunctionalEquivalence)，并以此理论为此次翻译项目的指导理论。奈达主要的学术研究都是在《圣经》翻译的过程中展开，他从实际出发，发展出了一套自己的翻译理论。他认为有两类基本的对等，即形式对等和动态对等。形式对等关注的是信息本身，包括信息的形式和内容。它要求译者尽可能地再现原作的形式和内容，这是奈达早期提出的理论。之后第二阶段他提出了动态对等。在他40余本著作和250多篇论文中，功能对等理论是其最重要的翻译理论。自20世纪80年代起，奈达的“功能对等论”在中国翻译届影响很 <世界历史百科全书》(第三纪元之社会与文化)翻译项目报告大，影响范围也很广。所谓动态对等翻译，是指翻译要用最合适恰当的语言去传递源语言的信息。在动态对等的翻译过程中，译者着眼于原文的意义和精神，而不拘泥于原文的语言结构，即不拘泥于形式对应。在奈达看来，译者关注的应该是一种动态的关系，进行动态翻译的译者比直译者可能更忠实于原文，因为前者可以更全面、更充分地理解原文的意义。他还认为，用增添、省略、转换等方式对原文意义进行解释，更能保持原文意义的完整。而功能对等则要求译文与原文不但在信息内容上对等，而且尽可能在形式上也要求对等。所以功能对等比动态对等更加具有说服力。奈达也表示没有两种翻译是完全对等的，他曾进一步提出对等分为“最高层次对等"(maximalequivalence)和“最低层次对等"(minimalequivalence)。最高层次的对等是指译文达到高度的对等，目的语的读者能够完全理解和欣赏原文，这一层次的对等由于种种原因几乎是达不到的。而最低层次的对等则是指译文能达到充分的对等，使目的语的读者能基本理解和欣赏原文。总之，奈达的功能对等理论在笔者接下来的翻译实践中给予了很大的帮助。3．3理论方法的运用与重难点问题的解决由于翻译原文篇幅较长，笔者无法一一列举进行分析，以下挑选了其中几个代表性的例子进行分析讨论。3．3．1专有名词的翻译此次翻译实践首先遇到的便是专有名词的翻译问题。专有名词看似简单，如不细细查找翻译也会出现错误。百科全书中专有名词繁多以及不同的国家和民族语言有所差异，翻译这些也有一定的困难。例如：1．InhabitantsoftheancientIndiancityofNagarjunakondacouldplayboardgamesonboardscarveAontoslabscoveringriversidesteps．(摘自原文第97页)译：古印度城市龙树丘(Nagarjunakonda)的居民可以在河边石级嵌刻的石板上玩棋盘游戏。笔者在查找Nagarjtmakonda一词时，看到以下不同译文版本：那革拉九那考旦，纳加尔朱纳贡达，纳喀加纳昆达，这些都是基于印度语而音译过来的，4 三、质量控制基本没有统一固定的说法，后又找到了“龙树丘"这一译文版本，而且出现频率较多，较符合中国人用词习惯，笔者斟酌之下，决定采用这一译法，并在后面加注了原词。3．3．2括号的处理原文中出现了多处括号，里面内容有的是解释，有的是同义词，意义不同，用法也有所不同，笔者认为只要把原文的意思表达出来，可以不拘于原文形式，选用最恰当的表达方式，所以针对不同的括号内容采用了不同的办法。例如：2．Thekyriosnotonlyhadfinalsayoverhouseholdmatters(althoughinaCtualpracticethisWiltSprobablyoftendonethroughconsultation)butalsopresidedoveranytransactions(whetherbusinessorpersonal)withthecommunitybeyondtheoikos．(摘自原文第98页)译：一家之主不仅对家庭事务有最后的话语权(尽管通常在实际生活中通过协商达成一致)，而且他主持家庭以外的集体事务，无论是商业的或个人的。这两个括号里的内容都是补充说明，但前面强调的是一种可能性，后面强调的范围，具体问题具体分析，所以笔者将前一括号仍然保留，而后一括号直接将它处理为--d,分句。3．AsAristotlenotes(Poh"ticsJ．1253b)，therewerethreerelationshipswithintheoikos：masterandslave，husbandand丽fe，fatherandchild．(摘自原文第98页)译：正如亚里士多德在《政治》中指出，家庭中有三种关系：主人和奴隶，丈夫和妻子，父亲和孩子。原文中所提的内容是涵盖在《政治》这本书中，根据功能对等的原则，尽可能地表达出原文意思可以不必要拘泥于形式，因此笔者决定把它直接译成“亚里士多德在《政治》中指出”，并没有按照原文格式来进行翻译。3．3．3句子的翻译句子的翻译是将简单的单词和短语联合成句，转换成目的语读者所能理解的内容。此次翻译中包含了不同类型的句子，根据功能对等的原理可以采用不同的翻译技巧传达出原文意思。 tilt界历史百科全书》(第三纪元之社会与文化)翻译项目报告3．3．3．1直译与意译直译与意译是翻译的两大基本方法，直译要求译文与原文既要在内容上保持一致，形式上也要相同。意译则要求原文与译文在内容上一致，但不拘泥于原文的形式。无论是哪种方法，能让读者接受理解的译法都是好方法。例如：4．HismouthbecametheBrahmin；hisarmsbecamethewarrior；hislegsbecamethecommonman；theservantwasbomfromhisfeet．ThemoonWasbomfromhismind；fromhiseyethesunwasbom．IndraandA画camefromhismouth,andfromhisvitalbreaththeMndWasborn．Fromhisnavelthemiddlerealmofspacearose；fromhisheadtheskyevolved．Fromhistwofeetcametheearth,andthequartersoftheskyfromhise缸ThustheysettheWorldsinorder．(摘自原文第111页)译：他的嘴巴变成婆罗门，手臂变成战士，双腿变成普通人，双脚变成仆人。月亮由心意而生，太阳由两眼产生。他的嘴里生出了因陀罗和阿格尼(雷霆神和火神)，呼吸中产生了风。他的肚脐生出了太空，头上逐渐形成天空。大地由两脚而生，他的双耳生出四方。因此，它们让世界井然有序的形成了。这是选自《梨俱吠陀》的一段关于描述宇宙天神的文字，语言简单明了，易于理解，因此笔者采取了直译的方法，这样既可以传达原文意思，也符合原文的句式结构。5．Now,thesestatuesbearpoCkmarksfromancientvandals，signsofmutilation．(摘自原文第95页)译：现在，这些头像留有当时破坏者带来的斑驳痕迹，它们是损毁的迹象。该句中的pock有麻点的意思，如果直译会变成头像带有麻点印记，会让读者摸不着头脑，因此笔者将这里意译为斑驳痕迹。3．3．3．2长句的拆分一般来说，造成长旬的原因有三方面：(1)修饰语过多；(2)并列成分多；(3)语言结构层次多。所以我们在翻译长句的时候要把握句子的主体结构，仔细分析句子的各个成分。由于长句的句子结构复杂，我们在翻译的时候不应该拘于一种翻译方法，可以采用综合方法把句子拆分翻译，达到准确传达原文意思的6 三、质量控制目的。例如：6．Karmaistheprincipleofmoralcauseandeffectaccor血gtowhichone’Scircumstancesaretheresultsofone’saction,withgoodactionsleadingtopleasantresultsandevilactionstosuffering．(摘自原文第112页)译：因果报应指道德因果原则，据此一个人的行为决定一个人的境地，善有善报，恶有恶报。首先要了解的是这句的主语是Karmaistheprinciple，后面的内容则是对karma的具体解释，所以笔者将该句拆分成几个小句，再整合语言连词成句。7．Inordertopreservemaritalties，EmperorAugustusintroducedlegislationin18BCEpreventingsenatorsfrommarryingex—slaves(thelex^Z妇demaritandisordinibus)andprohibitingadultery(thelex如加deadulteriiscoercendis)inallattempttoencourageRomancitizenstomalTyandhavechildren,legislationunderwhichAugustan’sowndaughterJuliawouldbecondemnedin2CE．(摘自原文第99页)译：公元前18世纪，为了维系婚姻关系，奥古斯都大帝提出法案，禁止元老院议员与被释放奴隶通婚(参照关于各阶层成员结婚的尤利法)，禁止通奸，试图鼓励罗马公民结婚生育。公元2世纪，奥古斯都的亲生女儿朱莉娅依照此法案受到惩罚。这是一个标准的长旬，结构复杂，语法较多，仅使用了preventfrom和inallattemptto两个短语以及从旬将原句连起来，成为一句话，主干部分为EmperorAugustusintroducedlegislation。如果直接按原文顺序翻译会使译文语义生涩，难以理解，所以笔者采取了拆分的方法，改变了句子的顺序，在不改变原文意思的情况下尽力处理长句。 ‘世界历史百科全书》(第三纪元之社会与文化)翻译项目报告四、总结4．1翻译启示通过此次翻译实践，笔者从中受益匪浅。众所周知，中西语言在词汇、语法、句式上存在很大差异，因此语篇构造上也有很大不同。历史文献翻译也不是机器翻译式的词句顺序对应和句法单纯求解，而且一旦在翻译中出现误解和偏差，将会造成事倍功半。而奈达的功能对等理论指导了笔者在翻译过程中要灵活翻译，理解原文内容，并清楚地反映到译文中。笔者还意识到要想保证高质量的翻译，我们应当充实自己的知识面，不但要大量的找寻历史相关资料，而且还要认真学习翻译技巧并且进行大量的翻译训练。除此之外，要想成为一个优秀的翻译人员应该善用资源，例如使用词典，网络和熟悉操作翻译软件。4．2翻译教训此次翻译过程中，笔者意识到要想有高质量的翻译需要译者精益求精，这一过程非常不易。首先，必须从作者、内容、读者、背景、作品表达手段等各个方面，对原文进行全面分析，然后转换出精准的译文。遗憾的是，一些有关背景和作者的资料，所知甚少。有些地方未必准确表达原文意思，译文还有待斟酌。在今后的翻译实践中，笔者要更努力提高自己的文学素养和翻译能力。其次，俗话说“一鼓作气，再而衰，三而竭”，笔者由于几次没有集中时间翻译，导致有些译文前后不连贯，有些专有名词时间一长就忘了，后来笔者遇到重难点的句子，专有名词等会留心做标记，为接下来的论文做准备。再者，此次翻译项目由大家共同完成，如果利用翻译软件将交叉的知识点建立语料库，对于所有人的翻译会更有帮助，有利于我们一起探讨，今后我们要积极做到这点。4．3待解决的问题由于笔者初次涉及此翻译项目，在翻译水平和实践方面经验尚不足，并且缺乏相关历史知识，因此仍有一些待解决的问题，例如：1．JadeitemonumentsfromMexicoareasstrikingtodayastheywere3000yearsago．(摘自原文第97页)译：现今墨西哥的翡翠纪念碑仍像3000年前一样引人注目。原文中的Jadeite本意为翡翠，笔者翻查了很多资料，尚未确定只是翡翠质地的纪念碑还 四、总结是纪念碑的名称叫Jadeite，后来在指导老师的帮助下确定它指的是材质，所以处理为翡翠纪念碑。2．Thedailylifeofmostancientpeoplewouldhavebeenspentincloseproximitytoindividualsdeemedfamily．(摘自原文第97页)译：古人的大多数日常生活应该是可视为家庭的成员生活在一起。这句与同学讨论的很久，得到的理解都不相同，最后在指导老师的帮助下，笔者理解了句子的意思，按照上下文意思处理了这句翻译。诸如此类的疑问笔者仍在进一步了解和改进，努力做到准确地翻译原文内容。9 ‘世界历史百科全书》(第三纪元之社会与文化)翻译项目报告参考文献[1]Andrea,AlfredJ．WorldHistoryEncyclopedia【C】．SantaBarbara：ABC—CLIOPress，2011．[2]Nida,EugeneA．TowardaScienceofTranslating[M】．Leiden,1964．Preface．[3]Nida,EugeneA．Language,CultureandTranslating[Ⅶ．Shanghai：ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress，1993．[4]范仲英．实用翻译教程[M]．北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2004．[5]郭建中．当代美国翻译理论[M]．武汉：湖北教育出版社，2001．[6]刘宓庆．文体与翻译[M]．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2007．[7]谭载喜．外国翻译理论评介[M]．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1983．[8]谭载喜．新编奈达论翻译[M]．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1999．[9]谭载喜．西方翻译简史[M]．北京：商务印书馆，2004．[10]尤金·奈达．翻译理论与实践[M]．上海：上海外语教育出版社，2004．[11]赵丹丹．浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]．文学教育，2011，(3)：54-55．10 附录1原文SocietyandCultureandquality．theseheadsprobab玲depictedancientOlmecleadeI．s．Eachheadwearsatypeofprotectiveheadgear．possiblythehellTletsofan-cienthallplayersTheba．弼altfromwhichtheseheadswI．ccarvedwastransportedaconsiderabledistanceandprobably甜gl"eatexpense．Theseheadsundoubted|vheldimportants沁cialmeaningfortheOl·mecs．Aswithallsocieties．valueschangeo谨ftime．andtherespectmatancientMexleansheldfortheseheadsW"2t5nodifferentNow,theeb-"tatUtXsbearpockmarksfromancientvandals。signsofmutilation．AI-thoughitisnotclearwhenthemutilationtookplace，thefactthatthesculptingof,statuescametoanendalmost3。()()oyearsagoatteststothee垤r-dvnamicnatureofculture．FromlOOOBCEtO300CE。Mesoanlericanculturesunder啭,entelab·oratechanges．DuringthistimeOJfneccivilizationⅥnished．thecityofTeotihuacanbecameathrivingUrbancenter,andthefirststirringsofMayacuItureCallbediscerned．Nore·worth’yab‘)utatlof【heseMesoalnerican鼢itecitiesbadlongex趣ed露WaSm功iscuh鬟1i竺亡p咖螂甜妞血Fp臼。plep州砌thaturbanz瞻becamepredomina,．tbeganlMn殳togethel"indoseproximity。“inlargect-ftter$．黼1iiccideshad10llgeX-ina瑶cf舌咐Mexico，Mostextremewas；St随’twa_5i．n‘b‘8period曲‘u翌nⅡfeTeotibuaca船whereaccordingtObD瑚ecamepredominantinancientMexico．Mostextremew强sTeotihuacanwhere．estimare,200,000peoplefived,ma越7瑷“pN∞础鸭三篇篇鬻岛2蛾000甓90percentofthatf“tture"spopulation，pielivedingpercentof．m呔uD90出舭⋯culture+spopulation．Forthebtaya愀nthelavomofthecin’wasmeaningful．andtheircitieswel"℃laidOUtinamannerth越reflectedtheirunde．岱tandingoftllecosmicorderof出eworldBevon薏Me：xico,thecityWaScentraltOmanyoftheculturesthatinhabitedtheworldduringthisera，FortheGreeks．thecity啼如cheb群calledthepollS)wasthefundamentalorganizingprinci·pieandthelargestrecognizablepoli馘althoughthesecitiesdidbandtogetherasleagues．FortheRomans．thecityofRome啊嘟thecenterofavastempire瓯retchingallaroundtheMediterraneanSea．Majorcit-ieswerepresentthroughouttheworldfromlO∞8CElo300CE：MeroeinNubia．AksuminEt撕oD诅。Persepolisi_IlP暇憾a．andr。FIewell-plannedcriesofZhouChinaareiu轼afewofthenlanvexamplesofimportantul"bancelltef"s．However,thevastmajorityoftheworld’5 96ERA3：1000BCE-300C蓦tSOCiETYANDCULTUREpopulationlivedoutsideofcitie2i．andtheproduceofruralal-ea$WaSabsolutelyessential，Thescurbancentersoftheperiodcametobecentersofcultureandart，withsomeofthemostimportantartisticachievementsofthehumanheritagehavingbeencoliceiredandexecutedduringthistime。ForstudentsofEuropeanart．theworksoftheGreeksandRomanshavebeenespecial霹formativeintermsofthede’"etopmentoftechniques，Skill瓤naturalisticdepiction．andchoiceofsubjectmatter，Myron"sfifth-cemurvDLscz》bulosmad坟接bronzecharioteerofDelphi．bo也COll,sideredmasterpiecesofworldaft，"9,"ere$c迸辨edduringthistime．Thefne乃esofancientPersepolisbleadedMesopotamianandCrreekartisticaesthetics．Anoutsi教ofthe-wLosl∽canollisiustasnoteworthy：Jade—izemonH∞蝴sfromMexicoaI他ass”越D舞todayastheywere3．O∞yearsago．Tkterra-cotta啭mrriorsburiedalongwithqnShiHuangdi，《d。210BeE)，thefirstemperorQf执Lna．a豫femarkabtefortheirindi-vidualdetailas喇衢thestrikingscaleoftheirnlallufacture．Celticdesigns(especially弱weservedinancientieweioi)arcstillutilized．nmoderncraft啪rks．ScvthiandepictionsofallimaJsingoldandbronze暑feexquisiteexamplesofartthatwascreamdinnormrbansetthags．Architecturally,l：|必periodhasInanvmarvels．Greekctassicaltetlvpiesalein．筑antlvrecognjz；abtetomodemvisitors，andmuchofthearchi-RtCtU豫lsensibilitythatwasestab鼢edbytheGreekswasperpetuatedinlaterEuropeandesign，Roman砌itecturewasva啦inscaleandtech·nicalsophistication．Romanmonumentscanbefoundtodayina魏"’oftheregionsoftheirformerempire．Romancitiessuchas}erashinJordanre-mainnearlyintactpartiallyduetothemormmemalitToftheircofistrtic-tion．Manyofthedark-gray／tlar域emonumentalbuildingsofthePersiancityofPersepolisSc进standtodav．他cfirstemperorofChiila。Qin．COIl-structedam戤湛iRwallm伪踉C．．hina"jir-orttm,nfrontier,lit-deDfwhichsurvivestoday．havingbeenreplacedbyv-hatisnowcalledtheGreat喁浊llofCllinaintheMingdynasty．Thct"eisasignificant锄OUntof敏d1奎瞪ctⅧ孵fromtheperiodlooOl}CEto500CEthat帮rastick．redtoa眦en：豳豇粥：珏LInmany,ways。thisperiodcanbeseen弱theperiodinwhichformalentertainmemollalargescalewastrue：born．FortheMesoamericans。publicbaliCOUrt"S．des缝nedattheendoftheprecedingeraandthebeginningofthisera，wereutilizedforthelaext3,000鞠嬲．Greek国eaters，shapedina．semi-circle，wci"cthe鬟It垃n鼢oftheeal-liestplaY5、Itis_inGreecethatthedra-maticartsfirstappearedasaformalart，andmarryoftheplayswrittenbyGreekauthorsarcstillperformedtc豳冀MusicalDe—brmanct=Sandorationsaisotook#aceinthesetheaters，providingthebasisformoderncol-K=；ert$andliteraryreacli_ngg趟曲棚ghthearchitectureofanciem曲i·l"lesemusicalpe】唾oI田W嗽isnotgnx-served，itsimportanceiswellat-tested，and黜O．assico厂．Poetryp娌喜a塌thel蜘csofanumberofallcierttfolksongs。Romanamphitheaters(o唧alinshape)，whc_l℃gladia．torialcombatandotherspectaclestookplace，prm,idethemodelformany：oftoday"ssportsarettas．Romanamphitheaters．1ikeouro礴q"la髓-na$，硪。H_elaidoutaCL龇tingtoclass。withthebestseatslocatedclosertothee",elltandthech龆pseatsbemgavxilableatthevet"vtopofthesta-dium(theequivalenttomodernboxseatsweI"ea说ilablefordignitaries)． Inhabitantsoftheancientindianci哆ofN39a巧un3蛔ndacouldptayl：)t：)ardgame5oilboardscarvedontoslabscoveringrix，1ersidesteps．n瞎strial皲ratificationthatwassocharacte呦ticoftheprecedingef3continuedintotheperiodfrom1000BCEto300CE、iadifany-thingthisstratificationbecamemoreinstautionalized．InGrebe，thecotAcept{《citizenshipprcrvided鞫。|驰℃individuals；|withtherightsaffreecitizensbutexplicitlyexcltmledWOtllelland如建疆￡撼搭fromciviclife：lnRome．clothingmarked啦es∽ialstattLS艚鞠individualin氯碍黼thatwasimmediate／3．"recognizabletoeveryozre，Inindia．：hecastesvs·ternthathadoriginatedintheprecedingetoar廷潍玲fixedaper$orl‘|s∞一cialstandirigbasedoilbitth，preventingsoctalmob溆y；this餐-stemcontinuedtocTolvedo飘rn主11totheGuptaAge，51ave癸"稿t＆scommonthroughoutmuchoftheworldfrom1000敷￡to300CEAremarkable竞atureoftheworldculturesofthisperiodistbeex-teilttowhichpeoplestillderive幽eiridentities-|fromthesej．ndemcul-tures．1‘hisistheperiodthatgavebirthtotheGreeks(inthe5cn5ethatwethinkofthemtodaD．theRonmm．theCelts，theHandynastyofChiIla．thePersians．theMaYa．and啦efirstlndianempiresinSauthA盘玉R缝httyor研∞n#洳：many#虻opktoday兜eladirectc：：l薹ltura]conti-hairywiththesocietJe_softhisancientel-jlTHEFAMILY；97鬟Introduction：TheFamilypeoplewouldhj谨been$petltinc|osepmxim-itytoindividualsdeemedfami虹甜撼biologicalrealityofhumanreproductionwa,5usuallythe"basisof妇milvlife．but￡tleaclualS[ructtl／"eofafamil、。一who葛r鏊consideredfamilyandwhichrelationshipsweremostmeaningful--variedcon．siderab姆．fromculturetocultureandfrompe-rkxltopeaodTherew／sgreatcontinuityin妇撒i婶StI"Uc-m糟inmanyregionsoftheworldduringthepe-rkxtfroml∞OBCEto300CE．FamilylifeintheNearEast(魄ypt，Mesopotamia，andtheLe％xnOremainedrchtiverh,stablefromtheperiodsprior￡o幽趣．Fami垮-5xructureintheGreekworldbecamerigidlyformalized淑thistime，MembersofaQ℃ekramie：hadcarefu／b，pr螂c删rolesandresponsibilitieswithinthefamily．andtheserolescarriedthew嘞fofl鞴’behindthem．Romanramnvstructuresweresimilartot}l越oftheGreeks．buttheidealroleswerenc碡鼬rig鼬"pre．scribcd，Thisisn)ostapparentiIItheaiteraativeidealsoffarnLIvthatdevelopoatofChristianin,in勋mantimes，Anincreasingformalization西fi瓣iIs"rotescanbe,seeninindiaandChinaatthi．cl：i撇Vedic：traditions掘IndiaandConfuciant／a-ditionsinChinafacilitated硅鹭da诧幻p∞规吐offor-malmodelsoframie,relationships．manyofwhich鲥朝irfformpeople"snotionsoffami玲today．一芄咀l村勉McGeougbn挎GreekFamilyTheGreek蠡milvrevolvedaroundthehouse·hold(o壤os)．"IXaeoikosencompassed00ron玲thenncle牡纽n哇Kfhusband_wife．and(：量王ildrcn。bothnaturalandadoptive)butalsomembersofthtextendedf越0Al托《pamcdarlyunmarriedfemalesandorphanedchiIdren)andslavesaswe／jashouseholdpropertyiani￡nals．,rich)cling 98ERA3：1000BEE-300C毫SOCIETYANDCULTUREr}o翱辨≈麓懵攀s：自leo睇砖奶譬＆程瓣撕笋酾曲。搿：c,ent；&y叠：￡“涮㈣0豁；{cWasalsothefundamentaleconomicunitofancierttGre：CCe．noTleas_【becauseinheritaricepassedlinearlyfromoneoikostOthestlccccd-iaggeneration．TheGreekCOnCCDtiOflofthefamilyWRS}ruthpatriarch嗣andhierarchical．As生ristotle!K琏群(Politicsi．12多§转’．the．reWerethreef。la-fionsh幻5withintheoikos：masterandslave．husband翟删w"de．鑫蟪麓嚣andchild．Thedomi-a越强1X"rsoni矗eac．hoftheserelationships蚍s曲雌seniorm"alemember甜thePamily,whoS‘譬、剐astheheadofthe．houschold(盘y，fc蟮)．n瓣如盯iosllOtonlyhadfinalsayoverhouj；choldnlatt℃"rs(althoughi矗actLla】pracucethiswasprobablyoften&methroughconsultation)buta：isOpresideda锻譬童nvtransat"tions(whetherbusinessorpcrmnal)察啦如thecommurfitybe-x<)ndtheoikos、Aninheritatme糕鼍susuaUvdividedamongmateoffsi蛾nguponthedeathorretirement瞳theirfather．MeninthisDe瞧)dcustomarilyestab-娃幽l螂clleir毋鹤∞oikoibymarrying，usuallyind—xire瓣tOmid-thirties。Femaleoffspring跫一ceivedtheirportionofmeinlmritanceintheformof&dowm：确ichtheytook辑≮出themtotheifntwoikoswhentheymarried，typicallyatamuchyoungeragecl搬n出掰fbrothers．Uponmar-riage，a磺℃lmanDcf2amepartol3newoik"OS．witlleitherherhusbandOroneofherhusband"sseniormalerelativessef订f塔asherk，7i06．Shewouldre-turrt∞heroriginalhouseholdonlyinthecaseofdi％xx．ceor辅"idowhood．WhenthereⅥ琶renOslar-Wingsons,．theinheritance粥slefttodaughte佟．娟owerethenm矗订噜edofftotheneare盛maleEuphiletus，thespeakerinas翻》ecnwrittNibyt}碡oratorbvsms。{嬲沁a由瞄the醚髓lfami＆嘲aIj讲惯h移heenjoyedw№hiswifebeforeshebeg歌anadulterousaffair．WhenlIAthenians，de嚆dedtomar搿。andbroughtawifeintofr掰house。totsometimel、黼醛辔|_SIX删neithertovexhernorto}ea悖hertoofreetodojust鸹she#eased；lkeptawatohonher笛faraSpossible，w脯suchObS翻v刮妃Inofheraswasreasor蛾．Butwhen毫chadwasbornto糯．thenceforward{-begantOtrusther,z喇Dlaoedallmyaffairsinne7hands，presumingti、atwewet@f的嘲in搿棚intimacy．Itwas锄e蜘atlfI蹁ee．-l，蝴lAlhe蛾she裂聱themostexc：elIentof燃V筠；尊阳w舔毫cll鲥％饥I酬№惜国婚日p瓯andkept霸硒哼懒钢卿S叫—的磅骘j_鹞，Lysias：L辨bCta．鲢icatLibrary,tra／毽．谳R．M．Lamb弼蝴York：．G．RPutnambSor溉俘3回：1怎0； 附录1原文relative10cn571．1fecontinuation硝boththefamilyliacandi鸽prope娜"．Thustb亡familyinancientGreececouldbebothcomplexand11ui(1T弧eHatureoftbefamilyinSparta引m,t5anom—alous．Spartanw-omcnenjo弹datnuchhigherdegr缱f)fpcr．蛐nalfreedomthantheircounter-partsln<咒befcita"．st矗tesandcouldO碡琳Jand．Be-c"auseboyswereeducatedcommtlftailvbythestateandhusbandsweft-notallowedtolirewiththeirwivesuntilthe3-WX：le,30)"earsold、theSpartanoikoswasmostlycomposedofwometl--Francesp5。甜’搿4tt硼E飘MjLY’99鼬I’嗍阳p畸一j《一”j·沁．。，薯玉一∞：一-。．一。一‘：：(三。e融y笛n二、Cnx，Cheq-IAnne．HouseholdInterestsPnnccton，v·÷i?豫Dt,5"h，‘章一·了麓=铷，·；篁j：o孽。rh兰，：，，二。、。毒N}，PrincetonUrdversilvPress．1998．Golden．Mark仂ilthenandChildhoodinaassicalAthensBaltimore：JohnsHopki醛Universitypress，1990Lacey,WK．n蚰Eamay．。．"inC．1assicalGreeceIthacaN、"：CornellUniversith"Press．1968．Patterson．CvBthiaB，勋啦FamilyinGreekHisto雌Cambridge：HamrdUniversitTPress，1998Pomeroy．Ca翔hBFamiliesinClassicalandHelle—i11％tic(；，删Oxford．UK：tTdarendon，1997TheRomanFamilyTheRoman[amilia．orhousehold，hadavariety"ofmeanings：itincludednotonlyagroupofper-sotxspossessingacommonkinshiporle鼬las的，clarionsuchastheirrelationshiptoapaterfamiliasbutalsoslavesandthefamilyestate．Inthestriel-estsenseitmeantallDeIrSo『flssubjecttothelegalauthorityf口atriapotestas)oftheseniormalememberofthefamily,thepace姚．Dunngtheeat"ivrepublicthestaoasofw"omcnwasdefinedbvtheirmalerelations，Uponmarriagethewifewouldbetransferredfmmtheauthority(potestas)ofherpmeffamfl·iastothecoaWol(manu曲ofherhusband．ThevalidiwofamarriageWaS瞅basedontheper-formanceofaceremonybutOllconub觑m“herighttoenterintoamarriage)and出epermis-sionofthemalcwho州eidedDote虹a置IfaWOll-fftl"lⅥ淄foundtobewithouttheiurisdictionofafatherorhusband．shewasplacedundertheauthorityofamalegunrdinn蛳∞r)．Thepaterfamiliasexercisedlegalamho时Ⅳoverhischildrenfrombirth1奄e、，couldnotownproperty，marrywithoutparentalconsent．ordrawupawiU；thefathercoilldexpose(abandon故)theelements)unwantedchildrenatbirthandhadthepoweroflifeanddenthoverthem．Un—iessotherwiseemanc如ate&childrenremainedsubkcttothetegalauthorityof出epatedamit诬suntilhisdeathlnIammortalitywashigh；lessthanhalfofchiktrenreachedtheageof五豫、Bvthelaterepqablictherewasalooseningofmarl住】ties．Manusmarriagesbecamer"arer．withwomeilremainingunderthe{urisdictionofthepaterfamiliasex．-e啦aftermarriage．Divorcebe-cattlemorecommon，theonlyobstaclebeingtherctIlrnofthedowry(dos)tothefamih-ofchebride．Inordertopreservemantalties，EmperorAugustusintroducedlegislationin18BCEpre·ventingsefiatoI-sfrommarryingex-slaves(the／exyutfademaritandisordinibus)andprohib-itingadukerv(thelex毳‘妇deadulteriiseoerocendis)mallattempt∞encourageRomancitize．_nstomal-rvandhavechildren．1egislationunderwhichAugustus’somdaughterJuliawouldbecondemnedin2CE．ThepurposeoftheAugustanlegislationseemstohavebeen幻encouragethebirthratethafhaddec量inedundertheeffectsofthecivilⅥ糟巧andthedecliningimportanceofmarriage、Pr如"ilegesweregrantedtofamilieswiththfccormolechildren．AsystemtoassistpoorerfamiliesinraisingchildrenwasestablishedbvtheemperorsNerl"aandTraiaQattheendofthefirstcentHⅣCE．Buildinguponpri、ateschemessuchas也atofthe№ungerPlinyatComum，thea／／men2apro-vide16or12sestercespermonthtomaintain 100。ERA3：1000BCE-300CESOCIETYANDCULTUREt×：}vsand12orlOSCSICrCCSpermonthforgirls，AccordingtOPliny．thepurposeoftheschemewas“’encouragethebirthrateamonglo玳r-(：lassjantilies，—一BewedictLowsBibliographyBradtev，K．RD括(黜l‘ertngtheRon托tn，管研曲：NewYork：Ox胁rdUnix：ersit’：Press．199i．I)ixon、Suzannc．n增，∞搦矗，lFam静’：BaltimoreJohfLsttopkinsUniversitYPress．1992、Gardner,JaneF．．andThomas骚qeclemann、?-beR,O-marlHousehold：ASourceboolt．NewYork：Routledge．1991George、Michellc，ed您PRomanF,inlil)’in抽孝自社．f，打e：Rome．it“味andBeyond、Oxford：Oxford【’niversityPress．2005弛H’H】n．Beryl．cd．Mat‘riage，DivorceandChildrenin4ncu。”，RomeNeH’5brk：Ox幻rdUniversityPress199l，EadyChristianFamilies下hee’jdeflccindicatesthatJesusofNazareth秘诅sunmarriedatthetimeofhispubliccaree_2,allun．tL‘ualthoughriotunprecedentedsituationtbra30-、。c-at-oldlcuisllmanofthefirstcenturyCE、Man)(《his硒llow芑fs．includingPeter,certainlywe：emarried(Mark1：30：lCorinthians9：5)．andPau“n出caresthatwivesoftenaccompaniedtheirhusbandsonmissionarytoursandcoilldbemis-,qonariesthemselves(Romans16：3：1Corinthians16：19)Pamhimself’‘∞unmarried，astateheprefe删becauseoftheimpendingix-turnoflesuswithi辐concomitanttransformadonofallrealityf1Corinthians7：25—31)．There。isastrongasceticimpulsepreservediiijesu5’steachingsandintheteachingsofPa迸。Wh{leneidaerrejectedmarriageforothers．theirOXkTIifiner"antlifestvlesappeartOhaveprecludedraisingfamilies。tnaddition，Jesusappearstoha"veplacedall￡絮lancetohim．．Selfandhismove—mentaboveallegiancetoofie’sbiologicalfamily(Matthew8：21-22：10：35—37；Luke14-25-27：Markj：即一35)．Therei5vefvlittteinearlyChris-tianteachingsaboutchildren．mosljiketvbe—causethemovementwasinfusedwithasensettlat111atriage，birth．andchildrearingwoukjallsooElcometoallendfM麓rk12：25：】Corinthians了：l哇．2S．28)，Asthedecadeswelttk’．圭loH’ever,Christiansincre盈singlybecameconcemedabout血milvissues1"heNewTestamentcontamslet·tersattributedtoPaulnand2TimothyandTi—tuS)thatareeitherforgeriesorwerewrittenbyaftolderPan】whohadchangedhisviewsfrom辑舞甜hehadwritteninCorinthianszInthese1ater1egrets．．。theauthoradvisesremarriageforwidows，marriageforrlrglns．ralsmgsubmissivechildren．andmandatory"marriageforChristianbishops(1Timothy2—5)OtherC11ristianauthorsofthesecondCeil—turvCEputforthallidealofrenunciationofmarriage，especiallyforwomen、a5allavenuetospiritualandsocialpowerinthechurch．OneexampleofthisⅥ强sthefamousAetaoIPaulandThecla．whichwasnotfoundintheNewTestamentbutenjoyedwidepopularityintheTheActsof#强JfandTtmc／awasapopular鑫iX虻n，一phaltext；n娜Christianitythatwasgenerallyconsideredtob堂fictionandthusexcluded的mtheBible．Inthi香"passage．theal∞stlePaulspeaksaboutthevirtlieofchastity,whichwasvaluedbvsomefo)lowersofChristasapathtoaNgher∞iritualunionw胁God：theworld，fortheyshallbepleasingtoGod；blesseda悖thosewhohavewivesasnothavingthem，fortheyexperienceGod．。．，Blessedarethebodiesofthevirgins，fortheyshallbewell—pleasingtoGodandtheyshallnotIosetherewardoftheirch蒯阻。“Blessedarethepureinheart，for蜘科wills∞God．Blessedarethosewhohaveke跌thefleshSourcechaste，fortheyshallbeeorr蛤atempleofGod；J,K，Hliot，ed。"ActsofPaulandThecta“inTheblessedarethecontinent，forGodshallspeakwithApecryphalNewTestament(Oxford：Oxfordthem；blessedarethosewhohavekeptalooffromUniversityPress，1993)，365。 ～堕茎!堕苎earlyCllristJancenturies．Somegroups，舒pe’ciallycertainGnosticChristianswhodenigratedthephysicalworld，denouncedmama．geand姒ualrelationsaltogethcar,Theproto-orthodoxCa￡bolicchurchesgradualh。developed逞middleground．onethatvalidatedmom鼯myandpro-creatiofl巍”mO毓Christiansb谨‘鑫垂辍≥heldinhigheresteemavoluntarycetihacvforthosewhowishedtOdevotetheirlivese_xclusivelvtoGod．Cwadua!Ivtflisidealofcelibacyspreadfromthe班movementswhereithadori密namdintothehierarchicalclerg)：Virginityforbothmcllandwomenbecameprized．andMary,Jesus‘svirginmother,cametosymbolizeatmiqtiecorn·binationofbothsexualrenunciationandlovingparentalcare．．Monogarr砖：．albeitwithwide·spread,"螬KLIaluseofconcubinesand文a谨s．wasalreadyallide甜ofCaesarAugustusandtheRo·manempire．Christianiw,however．emphasizedthenotionthattheIegaiwifewastheOfflytegiti-matescxuaipartnerforaman．一}e绺evTmtmbowerBibliographyBaleh．DavidL．．-andCaolvnOsiek．eds．点arh·Chris—tian}dff““esinContexl：A托inte俺龇l确社疆r譬DialogtmGrandRapids．MI：￡efdroans,2003Cooper，Kate，7跏11堙inandtheBride：Idealized球bmanbood魂LateAntiqu￡n：Cambridge：Hat-yardUniversityPress，t996．ElliottJ，K．ed。】，Z，PAbz,c删"pbalNewTeaarnent,NewYofk：0xfordUnivt!fsiIvPress．1993．Ruethcr，RoscB瑚J’Radfofci．Christianityand伪eMakingof娃理ModernFaratty,Boston：Beacon。2000；111eChineseFamilyfromtheZhouto．theHanPeriods曩FromthebeginningoftheWesternZhou(ca。1045-771BIC幻dynastytotheendoftheEasternHan(25—220CE)．the$l￡fuctl．il"eofcofllmonerfamiliesremainedstable，whilethatofelitefami—lieschangedimmensely．DuringtheWesternZhouandSpringandAutumn(722—481BCE)pe—riods，theehtelivedinrelativelylargekinshipgroupsthatweirpoliticalhautonomousandec-onomicaUvautarkic．However,duetothe：latterperiodsinternecinewarfare。矾theWarring17THEFAMILY{i01Statesera({03—221BCE)bo出noblesandcorn—monerslivedinrmclearfamilies．Commonerhouseholds，whileremainingsmallthroughoutthisperiod,"weresubjecttomarkedchangein啭铂Otheirnla．．s￡ersxxnereandthecircumstancesunderwhichtheylabored．、Xlt,h时ughthedetailsalesketchy．ehockin-shipgrcmpsdtmlinatedpolitics．societBandtheecoftotI抟：i娃《缝WestemZhou．Amongtheelite，妇ITao陂imoortant融unit辅警sthelineage,zu．whichwasagroupof秽trilinealkin(brothersanduncle豁thatlivedinthesameplaceandacted勰onein"war,politics、andworshipInZhou菇rues￡=lcbiineageestablisheda“)、vn，erectedal"lanccslraltemple=andcontrollednLt-i"lleroDscommonerfamiliesSinceeachlineagehaditsOWq3army。Land，andworkers，itxyasan·ionomousandseLf-sufficient．Theselineageswereinfactmerely1c$serversiotl5oftheroyallineagethatruledthecapital．SuccessiontoafamiWshereditarytItlc．fief．orofficewasbasedollprimogeniture．Lineagesbelongedtoevenhrgerritualunitskno碡’nasthezong(clan)．Aclanw豁a酸f姆&刚2entgroupinwhichahum-beroflineagesworSl-iipped3commonRncestorandpaidspecialheedlotheheadoftheclan(：ongzO。Commonerhouseholds。ontheotherhand。戳心fairlysmallandusual扣cons括tedofnuclearfatuities。Theycommunal沁workedthelandoftheirlord．Bythetimeofthe磺．arringStates．nTI_anYno·blelineageshadannihilatedeachother．andrut-efsconsolidatedtheirstat爆throughbureaucraticrule．SovereignsdetachedcoInmolaerfamiliesfromtheirpreviouslords，issuedthemland。andcollectedtaxesfromeachfamilyTomakeSLIrC国atnoteworthyfamiliesnolongerposed量threattothestate?noblesweregivenrevenuefromaparticulararea‘shouseholds，buttheywcl"enotgivencontrolofthatfeg烛，n豫kingdomofQinwentevenfurther：jtdecreedthatfathersandadult雪0nscouldriotliveintheslrneroomanddoubledthetaxesofhouseholdswhereafatherresidedwith豇K憾thantwoadult9淄．Conse·quently,duringtheWarringStatesandWesternHan(206BeE-20CE)periods．botheliteandnonetitehouschotdswereuniform玲small；theyusualh"contained五vcorsixmembers．Thesesmallhouseholdswerenuclearbutof-tenbrieflybecamestemfamilies．meaningthata 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t04；ERA3：1000BEE-300CESOCIETYANDCULTUREItwasonKinAthens’democraticreformsofthefifthcenturTthat．intheor)：eventhepoor-C．SIcRizenscouldho掰office．Thewealthymi-nonn$cominuitlgdesirctolusti砖itsstatuswlkqreflectedlnthcmoralterminolo努7used戡)deMg-flaretheDo轻“脚divi§i(mbd硗：e∞ohgarchsanddefDocratslxlghming韩≮t秘Homerand瓤)lonandbecomingmoreexpticitintheoO潋ic越teXtSofthelaterfifthand随f|vfourthcenturiesBe￡Inthisperiodterrnssuchas“thegtxxl．’“thet跫吼．。and。thenoblest”wereusedtorefer毫《’tileoligarchs．whereasterms期ehas“thebad7“the．scoundrels．”and。themob”Ⅵ℃怼usedtorefertothedemocrats．Citizenship戳stheothergreatdeterminantf汗socialstatus．ItⅥ，孙necessarytobea扭aduRmalecitizeninotxiertoholdpoliticaloffice．toVOte．ortoc押rl，l：md+Catizer卫ship啪sdcterminedbylegitimatebirthfromacitizcmlatherinmostcity-states．InAthensafter451壬}CE。descentfromacitizenmotheraswellasfatherwasaneces∞"prerequisiteforcitizenship．Women，freedmen，andsla矬sremainedoutsidethesocialandpoliti-calorganizationofthecity．asdidmetics，perma·nentresidentsofaciwstatewho"0Fet,eriotcitizens．Despite山cirnoncitizens镰tus．mare"meticswefeextremelywealthyandmovedinthehighestsocialcircles．suchastheSyracusanCephalus、whosehouseinthePifaetl$furnishesthe辩ttmgforPlato"sRepubl耙．1孤Spartanswereuniqueindetermthingcitizenshipthroughbothbirthandthesuccessfulcompletionofthesxateeducation秘"stem囟眭l妯cmphasizeddisci-pjineandmilitarytraining)．Spartancitizenshipalsorequiredmalecitizenstomaintainalifelongmembershipinacotnn"londininghallanddti-zenshipcouldbetakenaw-atvffcbevcouldnotcontinuetomaketheirfinancialmonthlycontri-bufiontoit，InSparta．citizenship"饥qtSlimitedto2degreetMltitwasnocelsewherebecauseitbroughtwithitanallotmentoflandandthemail-powertoworkthjslandforitsiM"oduce．Accord-ingty．therewereanumberofinferiorclassesinSpartansocietyincludingthepen"fmk-oLn(h,lciti-zerlresidentswhomaintainedpersonalandcco-notmcfreedombtrtwelx!requiredtoscr谨iJl啦eSDar【如a门嚣tandbdots．瓢怕Ⅵ氅rethepropertyofSpartancitizensandwererequiredtowork出elandforthem．．—。FrancesPou,nallB黼og偿p吟Austin．M．M，andPVidal-Naquet、EconomtcandSo-cfalHtstorv硷fAncwntGrevce：A12．Introduc-tio弹*Translatedandrev自iedbyM．M．Austin．London：B．T嚣atsford、197_Cardedge．Paul。7套pGreeL“s：APortrait搿Se矿and0给e掩2ridcd．Oxfi)rd：Ox轴rd【jnivcrsityPress、：倒≥2，deSte《00找，GE。M．ToeClassStrugglein娃叼An-cientGree女,诺Odd．1thaca，NY：Cx)rneUUniver-sityPress。1980鞲riley,弼王．The^嚣胁l￡∞脚卅PRev．ed。Berketq"：Univcrsil3ofCallforniaPress。1999Ober．JosiahMassandEliteinDemocratIcA曲en$。pfinceton．Nl：Princeton渤iversirvPrt!ss，i9S9、EtruscanSocialClassesandOrganizationEtruscansoOetww；lSoriginallyorganizedintotwospeciticsocialc‰seS．thearistocracyandthelowerdass．eachrelegatedwiththeirol；l,qlcharacteristicroles欲}playwi娃娃ntheexistingr<)cialstructlal-e．丁hearistocracywouldpla)1asu溉tta{roteinthegovernment，economicdevelopmem。andleadcrshipofEi．rLLc．,cansod—erv．Muchofwhatscho觚knowaboutEthansoc叠e挥isbasedoffarchaeologicalfindingsinEtruriaandschotarshil)wrJtten{醪laterRomanhiscofiansattemptingtounravelthemysteriesofEtruscansociet譬Themostusefuldataindeci-phermgthestructureofEtruscansocienis．-，frominscriptiorLswrittenontheirmonumentsespe-ciallvtheirfamollstombs，Fromthisevidence．it{silllastratedthatthegrowthofcommercecre·ated&riftwithintheEtnascanlowerclass．creat-ingasocialdividebetweenthosewhobenefitedfromeconomicexpansionandtbosewhodidnot，ManyofthesocialstructUI"L答prevalentinancientRomansocietyⅥ理狂jnfluencedtwtheirEtruscanpredecessorsinl划譬FromtheVLIlanm”anperiodofEtn】scanhis-ton，f1100to700BCE)toitsgradualassimilationintoRomancivilization(700to100BCE)。Etrus-cansocietywasincreasinglydominatedbyafirmlyentrenchedaristocracythatexercisedt；t．rictcontrolo、℃fthepolitical．military,eco-nORlle，andreligious8spectsolthe孙℃瓣per-SOD’slife．Intheirdevelopmentasaprimarilyagrariansociety,,theEtruscansgradualKdemob 附录1原文vpedatnaristocraticelitetiltingthetopranksol’themilit．ar、．thegovernmen￡，andthepriest—b：H)dl“}mthislandetlwealth．Theyincreasin#ydepended(m’铽’batisbelievedtobeasubstantiaiclass泓sc靠、wnox,vt．-rt．tltilizedprimari塔asagrarianiaDogcr,～Ascolxllnerceandweakhin-c-reawddue“’thedcvt：k)pmemofEtruscanag-riculrLlreasocialordergraduatt)cmerg酣．礴“ith幽earistocrac、holdingmOStOitheIandedwealthandthesenjrctegatedtoxvorkmgthekndandotherformsoflaborThisiedt0Etrtls-cancitieshayingbifurearedneight)()riv,xxls。、、riththearistocrac、‘llyingi11lUXllriousstoneoalaceswhiletheir靶rSresidedinmeagerⅥ×1(蝴ilOUSeSMostofthearvhaeologicalremnantsofEtruscansocieq-蛐dtheirion94ermCUttliraIc00tributionsarehea、’ilvinfluencedbyaristo·cradcelitejratherthanthecommonlowerclasses．Thelowerclassessharedmuchmoreincommon碡’iththt"neipdiboringItalicandLatintribesinkale：DuringCk琏caI瓶f协．thesicentLlrv,BCE)andHcllenisticii"ourthcentur、tofirstcentre"BCE)periodsofAntiquity．Etruscanci￡iesbegantohaveaniflcreRsei11trade碡‘【htheeasternMedi·terr”aneatlIIdtcnistickingd()msandCarthageinNorthAfrica．丁heemergentMediterraneantradenetworksestablishedCtllturalandeconomicliflksbetwt譬ntheItalian．GreekandMiddleEasterncivilizatiOilsThewealdlthattrickledi12110theEtruscancitiesledtothede、mk)pmentofcommercialelireswhobenefitedfromthisprocess。Asaresult．avibrantcommercialclassemerged出atmirroredthemerchantclasscsoftheHellenistickingdoms．Inspiteofallthescchanges，comn"lercialexpansiondi《notvethawanadverseeffectonthesocialstructuresofEtruscancjdesgiven心ataristocraticetitcsre·rainedahighlevelofpoliticalcofltroloverdailvaffairslntiffs{irespect．Etruscanscmietvreflectedtheoligarctaiccity-staresstillprevalentintheeasleFnMediterraneanworld．丁t跫Etruscanarts-tocracywasc"arefultopreseH"eitsholdoverso-Qety，maLntainingthesocietaldividethatexistedbetween出emandthelowerclas,scs，Etru,％-ansocietybenefitedfromincreasingwealthasevidencedlwthegrowingnumberofmoderatelyadornedtombsofthemiddlingclassesinadditiontothosebytheurbanlowerWorkingdasse$．TheeconomicandD心jtic豇re—SOClALCLASSES105c器n￡00Sarcc．．c．,P,,．qgo"2,毪Seian!,Han"on嚣了：es他s邑．E!Rjs一0誊t．{Ⅻ囊0蝴0鼻}。嚣。t薅。anza∞L珏"50-140BCErT?砖’t：s诧es0f■_ie彝热sh秘useom?越R8so艘-e}Mlationship[)etv,"eentheEtruscancitieswiththegreaterltallcandLatinpeoplesofltaKalsocon·汀ibutedtothegrowingwealthandintluenceofEtruscans(xziety．W缝hEtruscangoodstradedacrosstheMediterraneantheEtruscanctriesprospered．resuking{flthegn：ra’ingaffluenceoffkmerchantandartimnlowerclass．IntheLatcHdlenisticperiod强rstcentuiwBCE)．sociaJdeavageswi出intheEtrusc-anlowerclassesappearedduetotheimpactofthegrowthoftradeor!theemergenceofartisansandmet-chants、Notmuchinformatione虹StSabouttheaverageEtruscan。anddepicLionsoftheaverageperson’sdaih’Iiredonotexist．asmostartifactsandrelicsportrayonlyimaresofwealtlwari筑o-cfais．thearfataffies,andtheirostentatiouslife·stviesAmalori砖。ofthearchaeologicaldataaboutday．∞d＆avEtruscanlifecomesfromimage毋"andpersonalitemsfoundinEtruscantombs．accessi·b／etothosewhoCOL)王daffordthem．M叠nvpaint-lngsandiltustrationsOilthewal【softhelargertombsillu皲rate碍x)rshipriruals、elaborateban-quets．games。OStenLaliousceremonies．wed·dings．andother盈．ruscallculturalrjf删s．Thegrowingimportanceoftradeandcraftsman．,dliptOthelivelihoodoftheEtruscans，thosewhoweren(atrevolvedinthoseoccupat】cmswereSe．t2rlasaloveerclass，andtheoncepeacefulEtruscansocialexisterlcesoonbegantogivewaytosoci3jdivisionsandconflicts．Th拣resultedinsocialcleavagesthatencompassedallEtruscansocien"．nowcomlx)sedofthenewlydeveJoping t06．ERA3：1000BCE-300CE—SOCIETYANDCULTUREPerhapsoneofthemaincontributionsof：tileEt^Jscan$toancientRomewouldbethehams-pices．强eharuspr．．eswereEtruscanswiththed汶vO{inten3mtin蛋oc7燃sandp‘蜘穗s瓢theRomanrepublicandlheRomanemDira．黼潞theO豳inofsuchf。rtune-te／lersOftt"}e；}rnameisnot谨elIknown,，it{Sassumedthatitrfle∞,s$omeoF,ewho{o№atsomething,SomeE鼢canswerea。knowle删f。f{h蛳gifttodiscernthewi“攒the90dsbyexamhingmarksOrl1helivers鹾animalstooredictnaturaidisastersandothercatastrophes．AmaprpartofRomanreligiouspracticce,swasanimalsacrificsstothegodstoaugur∞odfortuneforamajorventure．Subse-quen廿y‘theentrailsofMesacrificedanimalswefleev,aminedbyharuspicesformarkson钠eliver,theshapeofofaans。oranyothersignthatthegodswerelnclinedtolookfavorablyordisfa～,orabtyor)anenterprise．Whi}esuchworktypifiedinterpretingsigns的mthegOds。haPJsp；ceswerenevsrconsideredtobereligiousbytheRomans．Rathe．haruspiceswereconsideredtooccupyapartlcularskilIthatprovedusefu{formakingdecisionsinpoi}tica!．rnit}tary,andeconomicv鲫tures．1nthiscapac酗"．1hisEtruscaninstitutionservedtheancieqtRomansasarelicofancientEtruscancivilization．--Abraham。．Mendozariftinthelowercla．ssesbetweenthewell-toMomercantileandartisanclassesandthosebelowthelTI．Muchofthee惦dence硝thisincreasingin．termdsocialstrifeisfoundintheremainsofELruscarlcemeteriesfromtheLateHeLlenisticpe．riod．1‘hesO瞳llandeconomicdispari砖"betweenthesot；ialclassesisill嘲edinthetombs洫termsof㈣thequalityofthegl"嚣-csandtheg()()dsincludedwithinthem．MuchofthissodalstrifeismirroredintheadjacentItalicandLatmcommunitiessurroundingtheEtruscancities、InspReofthesegrowingsocialriffsprevalentinF3．1"tLqcailsocie“：thearistocrac’rmain￡童inedtheirl烈doopoliticalpov沱r．Theevcn【ualconquest(509．207BCE)oftheEtruScancitiesbytheRomanrepublicukimatelysubsumedtheir．sodalorganizationandstruc．turetothattypifiedbytheRomanmodel，whichwashenvih‘influencedbvtheEtruscanexample．Havingbeenruledbyaseties硝kingsthatCOIl·stI似tedallEtruscandynas代theTafquins(fourthCefltUiWBCE)；Romewasexposedtothesoci翻andeccmomicclassirifluencesstemmingfromEtruria．n把Etruscanaristocracyisconsid·eredtoilavebeenthemodelfortheRomanpa·trjciant／asswhilethenuddjingcomme，．rci翻andartisanclassesalong喇￡htheirpoorerk粥,erorderswere《milartotheRomanplebeians。—囊brabamDMendo-．-a鼬liog灌p晦Ba蕊．Lui蛙E2ru．$canCitiesand?诒辫，’C7ulture，Bet"keley：UniversityofCaliforniaPiess．1973．Barker．Graem岛andTomRasmussen．7踟￡7／rlZSCdl／／d．NewYork：BlackweU、1998Haii．hmFtF．．edEtruscanltatv：EtrIt．ccanlmq,．wnces￡讲theOvilizatit．mse矿Ji“^，，阳符?Antiquib"to触崩odernEra．Prm，o。t叠BrighamYoungUni-versify,1996Haynes．Svbilie．EtruscanO,：il盘ation：一Cultural疗粒吣rE[x3sAngeles：Pa堪(话t盼Maseum。2000RomanSociaIClassesandOrganizationRomansoda【classesevoh-edfromadualis￡icso-cialarrangementbasedonbitthintheRomanre-public(509—2了BeE)to013ebasedOilme喀andwealth幻theRomanempire位了BCE-latcfifthcentur、,cE)．ThesI删divisionofRomanctxsSesintowealtlw,patricialas，asthepoliticalandeco-nomicelites．andtheplebeians,onthelowerso-cialendofthescaleasthepeasants，craftsmen,andcomnKalct随．1astedfortWOcenturies．Inlaterperiods。socialmobili镩wasnote姗attainabkduetOthe^喇socialarrangementsthatexistedinboththeRolnanrepublicandtheRomanera-pirebetweenRomancitizens，subiectpeoples．and$hVes，Whiletherewasalevelofautonomyvdthincertainclient-statesandprovinces!Ro-mandtizensWerestillregaledasthetopeche-loilofsocietyac．J-Of适theRomandominions．havinggreateracc氆3stothewealthandspoiisoftheeln扭懋．E1FenwithintheRomancitizenD",thesocialstatusofthesenatorialclass(senatores)andtheequestrianaristocrat"(equites)Der-sistedfromtherepublicanperiodofRomanhis-tolvin的thatofthe1ateempire Romansocialcl：媾scsintheearl)’Romanre·publicwereo瞎anizedintoIVFObroadclasses．thatof．thepatriciansandtheplebeians．Only删hadany．sortofpoliticalagent．．嘶啦women(：onsi淡lIed,qswardsoftheirlathersorhusbandsPar"rid&I!lswere’mcmbersofthe强鬻alrb’’c，rprivilegedclaj,,sofcitiz∞茂distin-guishedfromtheplebeians、descendantsoftheoldestpowerfulfamiliesresponsiblefortheo％"er-throwoftheEtnlscanTarquiniiDTantsandtheestablishmentoftherepublicin509BcE．黝tri-clanstatuswasgrantedonlyby。birthintoap戳|-i-clanfamily．Plebeiansconskstedofthegeneralpopulaceoftherepublic．甜le_}fstrugglefoff’{)liticatandlegalequalitywiththepatricianaristocrac、+wasknownastheConflictoftheOr-ders(≤94—287BCD．Duringthist瓢,o．centLIt3"struggle．theplebeianseventuallyincreasedthepotiticalrightstowhichtheyfeltentitledgiventheirmilitaq"andeconomicroleswithinthere-public，Intermarriagebetweentheclassesbe-camemmmon。Governmentpositionsthathadoncebeendesignatedonlyforthepatricianclass．suchasmagk‘traciesandpriesmoods，eventuallyadmittedpiebeians．歌，2姆我E。patricianandplebeianaristocrats(nobiles)emerged黔theunifiedrulingclassoftherepublicAsthemilitaryacquiredwideswathsoflandinRaN．Gaui(France)。Spain。andNorthMricaandannexedmuchoftheHellerdstic,East,theincorporationofforeign511biectpeoplescfe·atedadiffcrcntsocial,轴,*stelliinthelaterepublicandthroughrm+choftheempirepe-riod，Elitesinmail)：ofthenewh,"incorporatedal℃asw+eregivencitizenshiptofosxer10^嘲￡vtOattthoritiesinRome．Foreignsubjectsnotgrantedcitizenshipwereallowedtoretaintheixindige．／"lOLlSs。cialhierarchy50longa5the．"recognizedfileauthorityofRomethrougbthepa3"mcntoftributeandallegiance．Tkmassive_acquisitioflOflandsthroughoutmuchoftheempireincreasedthe[mliticalandeconomicimportanceofthearistocracythatcomposedtheSen缸e．The蠡lrmer-soldierswhohadcharacterizcdtherepublichadbeenreplacedbvprofessionMsoldiers．10,I，aIto搬如rgeneralra．￡herthanIotheSenateorthere-punic，Thisvastlyincreasedthepowerofcilemilitary．andintheventsoftheempirethepoweroftheemperors．Nevertheless、thesena-SOClALCLASSES{107lawwasmostlyunwrittenandbasedonunoff]cia!customs汝theeadyrepublic．Thissystemofunwrittenlav,"sandcustomsallowedthepmricianstomaintaintheirpoliticalandsocm!controloftherepublic矗f伽eexpenseoftheplebeians+whohad130knowtedQeoftheIawandweresubj6IGttoabusesatthehandsofcorr"dptofficials．Wp自喇静workingforpatricianInterests。lnthemid-400sBCE,thefirstofficiafleglalcode，theLexxnTabukz,um(LawoftheTwelveTables)was咖allyestablished．TheTweive协}esestab—lishedreqBfB孵ic,eandadherencetotheruleofIawasanessentiaIvak槽ofsocietyforneamamillennium．Thisproje盘wasinitiateclin451BCEwhenlawmakersappointedtenpatricianofficials{decemviri)tocodi．}!ythefirstwrittenlegalcode．However,afterayear"swork，}tmmaJnedlargelyjncomplete,resultinginthecremationofaNewpanelofoftic_iaIsthatincludedfiveplebeansassignedthetask．Aftermanysquabblesamongthepatriciansandtheplebeansonthepanel：thelawcodewaso∞np陵edinapproximately450BCEThe∞w喇oodereinforcedex{st}ngrightsand删删uresandreflectedthevaluesystemoftheexistingpatricianclassintermsofpropertyandfamilyias“es．丁heLawoftheTwelveTablesWaSplacedirltheFOrun^tO￡)eaccessibletoalIcitizensandioonsurethatplebeianshadknowledgeof獭eirle鲥andpotiti-calrightswithintherepublic．—，A6躇^arno"Mendazatotialaristocracy,"andtheequestrianaristocraQ"，whichownedmanyofthelandsconquered魄thelegions，retainedmuchoftheirownpoliticalinfluenceindomesticaffait"sakhoughtoalesserdegreeinthoseoftheempireperiod．Elitesin蛙站provinces．protectorates,andclient-kingdomsretainedtheirownsocials+pstcElsbut啊1ez℃alsoallowedsomeaccc,f落top0蕾iticalagenq,inRome．n跫GallicaristocracT,fora溘m一出．actuallyb@camepartoftheS口值￡einthesecondcenRlr"vBCE．Whilenacrchants。arti-slns+andsoldier4armersconstitutedasubstantialmiddlingdass，theydidnotpos燃manyofthepriv蛀egesheld酶thehigher()rdcrs(mitir．ar：："au．-thorit％hereditaryoffices。honorsandtitles、etc．) 108ERA3：1000BCE-300CE％SOCIETYANDCULTUREbuts矗nheldsubstantialpolirk”alrightsgmaran·teedtothema5citizensofRDIIIe、Furthermore．theqrbanpool",themajorityofsubjc-妞popula-tionsandparticularlyslaves．瓢锹relegatedto娃犯bottomof氐esocialLadderofthelateRomanre-p曲licandmilchoftheRomanempireperiod．—Abraham。．MendozaB渺liographyGarnesy．Pete,．SocialStatusandLegalPrxt．itegei，2theRomanEmpire．New翔敷OxfordUniversim’Press．19．-"OMacaMulten，Ramsav．RonuanSocialRelations，50B．c．toA．D．28《．NewHax-c-q1．(x：、矗leUniversityPress．19了tSlaveryinGreekandRomanSocietyInb10蜘GreekandRoman取》dl啦iestherewasahe3v】’relianceonslavelabor,andallactivetradeinslavesperskstedtotheendoftheclassical飞嗨持他thenthereissuchadiffertmce8s懈betweensoulandbo瓯orbetweenmenandanimals(asintheca∞ofthosewhose髓sinessistousetheirb峨andwhocandonothingbetter)。thelowersortarebyrl镦t．1reslaves．and逢isbetterforthem觞fora&inferiorsthattheyshouldbeundertheruleofamaster．Forhewhocarlbe。andthereforeis．another"sandhewhopart．pates讯ra蟾)nalpI订Ic涵leenoughtoapprehend，butnottohave。suchap删p4e。isaslavebyrlature．Whereastheloweranimalscannoteven捌opre-bendaprinciple；theyobeytheirinstincts．Andindeed竹}eu∞madeofslavesandoftameanimalsisnot■瓣Ydifferent；forbothwiththeirbodiesministertotheneedsoflife．Nalurewould1iketodistinguishbetwe舯thebod沁s研freemenandslaves，maI的蜘e∞estrong橱senatelabor,theotheru研口l_lt．5一．1|!。：滔酌PBymeSourceAristotle，ThePo／／b嘧ofAr／sto舀e,V01．1．，translatedbyBen穑蚋玑Jc喇e撞(Oxford，UK：Ct翘-endon，1885),8．9．24垃撇加sc帮g∞∞糖Gateof繇瑚吣anct嬲删a嬲女鲁S副the钟翘o∞to辨eAgoraof和疗8s撼pras．ent-∞r泛拣眵孙e辨姆蠢nam喇绺黼批妇燃椭erect承Je加}l∞笤秽Emoeroraag淤tus搬{您9ranteo"‰thet"freed碰．m．为帕国￡始孵world．EnsLavememoccurredunderlllanvcir-cwll蚴．ce$，includingcaptureinbattle，bondagefordebt．andscizt／rebyslavetraders：013(：’5ra(譬Orethnicity．however,played110role．Acl词dofs"lmaeparen落generallyinheritedtheirSKitI：L‘1．111一lessdaimed弧themastertobecomethemas汜r。schild，Slaveslaboredinthefieldsofwealthyland-owTlers．mannedtheoarsofgallevs。andtoiledoflconstructRrnsites。GreekandRomanhousehold-erSdispLa}％-xltheirwealthandstatlls西the1111111-betofdomesticslaveswhocooked，cleane6andotherwiseservedandm灯嫩illedtheirOWflers’townhousesandcounu3"residences．Tl-ust"WOl呦．"maleslaveshandledtheirmasters’personalandfmandalaffairs．whileattractif、j"ewomenwereof-tenflxiucedtosexualplaythings．Thenewlyenslavedsometimespossessed、_aluableskills—fluenwinmultiplelanguages．expertiseatanartorcra氛，2highlevelofeducation，orathletidsm--thatmadethemespeciallyvaluableande"ven艇粼删．Forcx∞anple，Romansprizedwell—educatedGreekmcllasteachersfortheirchil-d姗andathleticmeDofallethnicitiesasgladiators．Businesso瓢；nerspurchasedsla咒．．stoperformmanualkqborfangmgfromtllillingtodockworktomanuscriptcopying．InGreekpoleissuchasAthens．evenmode髓househoid5hadoneormoreslaves．a珏ctthat 附录1原文somehistoriansseea5critic翻infreeingtheadllitmalestopanicipateactivelyincivicmat-lers．thepreconditionforAtheniandemocracyandthefltwveringofGreckculture．Grec秘黜)maflslaves靴rcconsidered举礴诬i越prop-crt3"(chattel)．thotLghnofIIl5andijw5forpropert,．t,atr[mnt(andacceptablemistreatmen0evolved{ncia熊icalsociety．Slavescouldachievefreedombyinformalorformalmanumissioneitherattheowners‘commandorthroughtheirLastwilISor帆purchasingitfromtheirowners—00sepb擎?B妒抟eBibliographyBradley．KeithSlaverl·andSocietyaltlome．Nc-wYork：CambridgeUniversityPress．1994，Finlav。MosesClassicalSlate"r；，London：FrankC翻诲，2003Gadan．、t"vonSlaverl，inAncientGreece、Translatedbyfat"letUovd、lthaca．N、’：C∞ndJUn．iversiu-Press。1988EadyChristianSocietyThcearlyChrLstianmovementVeaSdiverse．per-meatingaliievelsofRomansocietyRecenthistoricalstudieshavedemonstratedthatfromthebeginning．ChristianitvincludedbothrichandpooraswellasfewandGcntiieamongitsnumbers．ChristianitvmovedinidallywithinJewishcommunitiesoftheeasternRomanprovinces、However．itquicklybroadenedtOincludenon-Jews．DuringthetimeofPaul，sinailChristiancommunitiesrepre辩ntedacrosssectionofso-cietv．FromthesecondcentLlrvCEonward，Christianityspreadpredominatelythroughoutthepaganworld．AlthoughChristiancommuni·tieswerecomposedlargelyofthelo碡,erdaSsesaswasRomatsocie￡vtherewcreupper-classmembers．EarlyClwistianshadavarietyof0(2-cupationsrangingfromartisantosoldiertogov-eminentoffidaI．UntilCorLs"tantinelegalizedChristianityinthefourthCefttUⅣCE．ChristianiDappealedtothosewhowL篁-eonthemarginsofRomansoci·eh：ChristianbeliefsdiffereddramaticallyfromtraditionalRomanreligiousthought．Tbe’goI"-幽jpofRomangodswasallimseparabtepartofbeingaRomancitizen．Therev,xtregodsfofaliSOCIALCLASSES109{nthesecondcenturyCE。CeIsuswroteaninfIt垮翱一tiala：t急ckonChristlankycattedOntheTrueDoctn,舱。Celsuswasanotherwiseunknownai／thor,敬囊hisworkgeneratedconsiderableOppositionamongChristiantheologiansalthoughaform,airebuttal耄。hisargumentwasnotmadeunti!象g捌nerationafteritspublication．Amjdhiseriticisrn癣eh穗霆殖ndoctrine。Celsusclaimedth敏Ohds—tmaswerecom蹦seclofthelowest，mostignorantrr港mbereofRomansociety,OrigenofAtexa．ndgawroteale『l承hyl芎≮由toCelsus，theContraCa-si』m．arguingat：lengththatChrist：answeredrawn袖matlranksof：society,includingtheeducaledclasses．Whliebothamhorsadmittedlyengaged讯哪,perbole．GeIsus"sworkand《》f迫en，Sre捌yrepresenttwodistinctv{ewsofOhdstiansociety．Celsus毫claimsarerepresentativeofmanyRo-roans；suchaccusa菌onsappearinothel"worksandareaddressediIqmanyea由C：hristianwritings．Origen，ontheotherhand，notonlytriedtorefuteCelsus"sclaimsbut翻sO酾edtoemphasizethatChr酞ian黔wasinfactareligioncompri．sedofpeoplefromaiiwalksoflife．—上／saHollidaymsF．,ec笛oflife．induding出ewelfareof}ndivid—u盐icitiesandthefigureoftheemperorhimself．MonotheismwasconsMeredbymanvtobeathe·ismbecauseitdeniedtheRomanpantheon．弧loscwhoconvertedtoChristianityrenouncedthesocietTtheylivedinbytheiradherencetomonotheisticbeliefsNolongerabletopartici-pateincivicreligiOusfestivaisortosacrificeforthewell．beingoftheemperor,ChristianswereviewedasoutcastsbyotherRomans．Christianconceptsofsalvationand2personalgodaswella5ltsethicalteachingsdidnothaveacounter-partinRomanreligiousbelief峨ththeexcel>tionofsomephilosophical．schoolsofthought．Init纽lKChri!；tianitvattractedmembersw蜘Ⅵ鼍f℃dissatisfiedwiththeircurrentpractices、Aherthecom-℃rsionoftheemperorConstantmeintheearlyfourthcenturyCE．however，peopleb吒罄柚toconvenbecausetheysoughttocufn’favorwiththeemperor．瞩1thintheearnChurch、socialstatusinilu．encedone’spositionandresq睨msibilitieswithm 110ERA3：1000BCE．300CE≥SOCIETYANDCULTUREtl：抡communityEadvcommunitiesemphasizedtheequalityl，．ofalmembersbutasthenumberofChristiansgrew；thisnotiondissipated，andCht-is-dancommunitiesbegatltomirrorRomansocialstn“1t土恐Womenwemfromb酮晦able∞holdpositions0fau=￡horitywithinthechurch．stK；hasdca￡ola、tohavingr出d崤瓣status，Theupperclassesinparticularw-el"evitaltotheSLK．"CegSoftheChri筑ianmission．Fromthe国鬣。嗽Ⅷ一(蔫on确．rd。wealthyme妇甜嬲offeredtl-蛔a"homesasmeetingpbcesfortheefellowChristiansUntilthethii-dcenlLll"1"CE．housechurd恼weretheprimarymealL§bywhichChristiansgatheredinco州spicUOll稿3"tOworship．Uvperqclassmem-betspro铲idedthefundsforcharitableworkaswell．ClementofAlexandria．forin．弼sance。urgedwealthyChfi懿ianstOdonategel"lCl-OtlSlyt0(翻霸争tiancharities．suchasthosethatprovidedeafefor州∞飘湛andorphans．Lastl嚣prominentmembersofthecongregationwilledtractsoflandtothechurch．Thankstothesebequests。thechurchcontrolledasignificamamountofland瓣thefourthCe田ltLIIWCE．FollowingConstantine：sreforms．whichincludedthelegalizationOfCbristiam“aswellasthegrantingofimperialsupporttothetell-gion．Christianityspreadrapidlythroughouttheempire．一上￡锻Holh"dayBjbB。graphyFrend。Ⅵi狂．C．力蛔＆晰Church．PlailadcipbiaandNcwYork：Lip!Mncott，1966Meeks。W盯嘴，弛"PFirstUrbanChr姚ns：强赡So-cialWorldoftheApostlePaulNewHaven．CT：YaleUniversityPress．2003．Theissen．Gcrd，SocialRealityandtheeartyChris．tiansMinneapolis：Fortress、1992．SocJaIStructureinLateVedicIndia--TheCasteSystemThefirstliteraryreferencetothesocialStrLlC-[LIrenowknownasacasteisfoundinalatehymnoftheR垃，l奢矗口titledthe“PurushaSuk"ta、“or。HymnoftheCosmicMan．’ln￡hishvmn．foundinthe置b}}钮翻譬tenthmanda／a．orbool‘theentireuniverseisdesc矗bed雒ha’SngarisenfromthesacF强ceofaprimord"talcosmicbeingcalled：simpl、|‘theMan，’orPuruslL2Inthe诧黼oCthistn,mn．aval"ietvofnaturalphenom—ellaanddeitiesaredescribedascomingfromthisbeing!stⅪld≈’parts。nlemoollwasborn沁mhismind：fromhisevetheSUl"l啪s|born，IndraandAgniCa／hefromhismouth．andfromhisvitalbreaththe粥i幻【Vayulwasborn．Fromhisnavelthe越iddteraalmofspacearose：fromhisheadtheskyevolved．Fromhistwofeetcametheearth、andthequartersoftheskyfromhistar,Thusthev『thedeiticswhoperformedthesacrificei辩ttheworldsmorder’Inaddj：￡iOnto．naturalphenomenaanddei·ties。thevafiol拦groupsmakinguplateVedicso。cietyarealsoilcs<了迦Ied鑫sha识ngemergedfromthesacri矗ceof‘thecosmkman．嘲ismolltbbe-cai"lletheBrahmimhisarmsweremadein∞the"帮arrior．histhighsthePeople．andfromlxisfeettheslwants啊℃他lx："rn’孙edegreetowhichthehierarchicalgroup．irigdescribedinthePurusbaSuktareflectsthecasl．e跚stemoflatercenturiesisatopicofde·bateamongscholars，Overtime．theideaIofasocierrinwhichBrahmins．theiiltellectualandpriestlyclass．arciocatedatthctop．followedt胃thewarriors(Kshatriyas)．thecommonpeopie(Vaishyas)．andthescr强ms(Shudras)graduallybecameInore—centraltoIndiansocieU；豁re-flectedinthelaterDharmaStmstraorlegall．it-eratureofthepost-Vedic，classicalperiod．ItispossibletoreadthePurushaSuktaaSreferringtosuchaSodalreatitvinthelateVedicperiod拙firsthalfofthefirstmillenniumBCE)。Butitisunlibflvthatthec盔s辩s,Pstemexistedinitsfullydevelopedformatthisstage．Scholarshavenotedtheresemblancesbetweenthisfourfoldhierarchyandsimilarthreefoldsocialstructuresfoundinotherlndo-Europeansocieties，consistingofapriest盼inteblectualclass，aclassofwarriors，andaclassofeo庄吐Bonefs。1’圭1eadditionofafourthclass．thatofservarits．intheVedic靶"stemhasbeeninter-preted龄some鹳evidenceofanIm虹Aryanin·vasionormigrat"m睡in辅fftichtheindigenouspeoplesofIndia可慧：f℃madeimoascrvamclasssubordinatetothe。|threeIndo-Europeanclasses．Butthistheoryis。·．debatableandthereisevidencetlmttherelationsamongthevariousclassesofIndiansocietn-w"eremorecomplexin 附录l原文,ancienttimesthanareadingoflateVedicandpost-Vedictextsmightsuggest,Theword“caste’isderivedfromthePortu·砭粥s‘·∞s粥f‘color8)，whichintll腿抟atransla-dont《theSanskrittermt,arna．Varnaatsoflle；Lrlst(x)lQr“and拣theVedic￡e瓤强forthefourprimaD‘categpries例antiexitI．ndiansocieU?theBrahmins、theKshatriyas．theVai确yas：andtheShudras．Anearliergenerationofscholarssawthisterm“color’asfurtherevidencethat【hccastesysternretiectedall11雕"aston谊ancaemIndiab?allethnicgroupwithalighterskintonethanthatoftheindigenouspopulation_Thistheorytoo，isdebatedamongscholars．s‘)meofwhompointOUtthatthecolorstradi-Lionalh"assignedtothefour"varlla。safenotskintorle$butarederivedfromthesystemofgunas，orqualities．derivedfromtheancientSamkhyas"rstemofHinduphilosophy．Each、麓rnaisbe。lievedtohaveaparticularsetofcharacteristics．derivedfromthemixofgunas．orfundamentalqualities，thatconstituteit．Brahminsarethuscharacterizedbvthes蹿ttt"icgurm．whichisas—sociated"withconsciousnessandintelligenceandse．．瑚abolizedbythecolorwhitThewarriordas,5．appropriately．ischaracterizedbytherat／asicguna．whichisassociatedwithambitionandenergeticactivityandis∞bolized姗thecolorred．andsoon．Howwasv"arlladeterminedinlateVedicIn-dia?Thesvste／lq￡h蛊￡predominatedb’tthetimeoftheBuddha．aroundthefrithcellturvBCE．andthatwasafreaoX"ancient打thistime啪sasystemofassigningvarnathroughbirth．nlecastesystem．ino出el"words，ishereditary．0Deisamemberofthecas【eofone‘sparents．T如tsuchasystemwasquestior虹l研somemembersofthesocietyjsclearfromtext,5suchastheClmndoRvaUpanisbad。apartoftheIateVediccorpus,誊thatincludesastoryinwhichayoungmanofindeterminatecasteapproachesarenownedBrahminforVedicinstruction．apdv-itegereser、,edexclusivelyforBrahmins．Whentheyoungmanistruthfulregardinghislineage。theBrahminacceptshimasastudent，exclaim-mg．‘WhobutaBrahmincouldspeaklikethatl8fCbandog),a￡套毋辩括移蠕g4．≤)．Onepossiblein-terpretationofthisstOn"isthattheBrahminre．gardscastenotasamatterofbirthbutasamatterofindividualcharacutr．Suchallattitude27S∞lALClASSES111IntheRi尊一Veda．therearemanycreationstories．0neofthesedepictsthevariousDartsoftheUNiverSeas&-ising秆Omtheb0晰partsofacosmicOe黔whooffershisbodylnsacrifice．Eachbodypartbecomesadiffare嗽partofthenaturalwond，Similarly．thetextaisoseesthevarious{墙玎；as．or院s耄es，gsemerg,ng黼越1issame$3c嘲ce，8Hismouthbecamethebrahmin；hisalq-nsbe-came强ewa州or；his}egsbecametheCOrnmonman；theSerVantWa,5bomfromhisfeet．Themoonwasbornfromhismind：{沁mhiseyetheSUl3wasborn．}ndraandAgnicamefrOmhismouth。and蠹口mhisvita}breaththeWindwasborn．FromhisnaveIthemiddlerealmofspacearose：靠Omhisheadtheskyevotved．F∞rnhistwofeetci型"Tletheearth．andthequartersoftheskyfromhisear．Thustheysettheworldsinorde广(Rig—Veda"0，90，12—14l，--JefferyDLongSOul它eWendyDoniger,trans．．TheRig-VedEA疗AnthofogyfNewYortcPenguinClassics，{983)。30．st瑚ee,stedintheL爹anishads．ismadeexplicitinBuddhisttexts．suchaswhent11eBuddhaisattributedwithsatang【hat。CmeisnotaBrah·minbvbirth．norbybirtha[10ll-Brahmin．ByactionisoneaBralumn，byactionisoneanon·Brahmin”(淞ettbaSutta)．WhethercastemembershipwaswidelyviewedasamatterofindividualcharacterinthefateVedicperiodorv．，hetherstatementstothateffectareidiosyncraticandmadeinprotestofadominantviewofcasteashereditar3’．；bytheClassicalperiod(fromapproximatel)320CEto550CE)castemembershipwasmostdefinitely．amatterofbirthf／a玎)。aspresumedintheDharmaShastraliteratureofthatperiod．OVerthecourseoftime，thefourmainvarnasoftheJateVedicperiodbecamelessrelevantinprac—ticethanthesubcastes，甜i甜is，impwhichthemainvarltasaledivided：profession-basedhe-redit郴groupsarrangedhierarchicallvinternls 1t2；ERA3：1000BCE-300CE。、SOCIETYANDCULTUREoftilepurityorimpurityoftheprofessioninquest"ion-j《辨曙D．Long翻bbogr宣印yDoni．get．wH)以．【ransTbe妇z￡蔷可Manu．NewYorkPenguin，1991Nanamoii．Bl畦kkhu、and瓿ikkhuBodhi．tr3nsl甜·settb口Su2ta．BoMorl：WiSdomPublications+1995O‘Flaheny．Wend?D,-miger．LrarlS，n蟹RtpVeaaNewYork：Penguin．1981．olivelle、Patrick．tfan$．Dhar抛asutvas‘7玉#LawCodesofAncientIndia．0xford：Oxt％rdt：n^e卜siz、。Press．1999．0livellc．Pjltrick，trailsUffanisads，OxfordOxfo嘲UniversityPress．1996，ChangingSocialConceptsunderJainismandBuddhismAroundthemiddleofthe五鹞lmillennitimf》CE。amo、xmentemerged出atquestionedthebasisofthel"arna(caste)sl"sre／iIthathaddevelopedcenturiesearlierduringtheLate掩dicperiod．AccordingtoallorthodoxBrahmanicaiunder-standingofthissystem．thehumansocialorderisadivinelvsanctionedrealitatinscribedjntothefabricofexistence．AccordingtoJainismandBuddhism．however．casteismereivahumanconstruct，aw笱。主orgamzmgsociet冀having110divine,sanctionlainismandBuddhismsharetheVedicbeliefinkaHlaaandrebirthbutdonot啊蹦one：：smembershiDinaspecificcasteasameaSLli℃ofspiritualevolutionRather,itisthecharac￡．croftheindividual．illustratedinhisof"herdeeds、thatisimportant．inthecastesystemasitevemuaUycameto"beFn“acticed,s()c黼远organizedintoahierar-幽x、withtheBfahmins．thepriesd，’andintellec·tua!class、戤thetopfollowed钾theKshatdyas．",warriorsandscxularleaders)．theVaishvas(theconlffKinpeople)。andtheShudras(n撼ser、,-antclass’．Coupledwiththedoctrinesofkarmaandrebirth．theresultlsawoddviewinwhic．hone"slocationin§o随visame．asuteofOfle’Sspiritualevolution．Kal-ma始theprindpleofmoralCaLKsCandeffectaccordingto呐jchone‘scirx-a．h"n·slaflc,esaretheresultsofone。sactions．withgoodactionsleadingtopleasantresultsandevilac-tionstosuffering．Becau．．t论orlelifetimei5notsufficienttimetoreaptherewardsandpunishmentsthatonehascomingforallofOnC‘sactionsoftoexoJainonescllrl陀ntsituationwithrespecttohappinessandsuffering．acorolbr’"oftheprin-cipleofkarmaisthedoctrineofrebirth强jsho配s出戤duetoone’sk．atma．oneisbominpar-ticu-larcii"o．1nlstallcesto觥rleficethere．c1．1lt．sofOl"le--$f"a或actions．Putsimpl)_．thedeedsofthislifeareinsufficienttoexplain渤oneisexperi-encingtheparticularmixofhappine,冠sandsuf-fer主n譬thatoneisexperiencing．Noratdeathhasonetypicaltyreapedtherewardsandpunish-meritsthatoneshouldexpectfromthedeedsofthislife，Thus．越leastsomeofone"scurrentex-pericnccsmustbeduetoactionsoneconlmittedbeforethisfife．And幽efruitsofclarrentactsthatonedoesnOtexlxa"iencenowwiltcomelater．BecauseBrahminsareatthetopoftheso·cialhierarchy．theconclusionisdrawnthatsuchafortunatefchirthmustbedue的highlymeal-toriousactionperformedinpastIires．Thissug-gestsasoul她ishighlyevoh"ed，makinggreatprogressinthedirectionofthespiritualgoalofliberationfromtherebirthprocess．Similafl囊toberebornjLsaShudraisseenasan111"1fortunaterebirthandconsequentlyasapun．ishmentformisdeedsandasevidenceofaiess-evolvedspiri·tuaIstate．Themovementthatchallengedthea秘sump·tionsunderbiagthecastes、’stemwascalledthesbramana(筑river)n,lovL-qTlent．Thes!”amana 附录1原文nlo讫menllnctudedamongltsmanys～ubgn)upstheJainsandtheBuddhksts，thet-woshraman量groupsthatstR"vPl!"easreligiOUScommunitiestothepresent，Theshramanas,astheirnamesug-gests。heldthat弧diVidualstriving．rather【h斓thec粼of(撇’sbirdxw签垃挺疆镍omeasureoffnt稻IdeveiopmemAnyonewillingtopm如rththef撼Ⅸss甜了efforttobecomeaBuddhistofalammonkorfiLmcouldattainiiberati